{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:49:07Z","timestamp":1760240947135,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,4]],"date-time":"2019-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1570147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper aimed to develop a portable, low-cost, and easy-to-use measurement system for oil quality degradation assessment. The main two chemical parameters affected by frying are the total polar compounds (TPC) and free fatty acids. The system should characterize the change of chemical parameters by measuring the changes in its dielectric parameters. The dielectric parameters, relative permittivity, and conductivity are measured by measuring the capacitance and resistance of a capacitive sensor dipped in oil. The main challenges are that the corresponding changes of the capacitance and resistance are very small and the presence of stray effects. For this reason, the measurement system should be able to detect changes in capacitance and resistance with high resolution and with good immunity to stray effects. The proposed measurement system is based on the conversion of impedance to voltage and time and combining, therefore, having two measurement methods in one circuit. In this way, it is possible to measure the dielectric and resistive parameters and not only the relative permittivity as was done in previous works. The results showed a strong correlation between the chemical and electrical parameters with a coefficient of determination in the range of 0.9.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19194299","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,4]],"date-time":"2019-10-04T10:54:58Z","timestamp":1570186498000},"page":"4299","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Measurement System for Lossy Capacitive Sensors: Application to Edible Oils Quality Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Fendri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Technische Universit\u00e4t Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"},{"name":"National Engineering School of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3689-6518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Yahia","family":"Kallel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technische Universit\u00e4t Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"}]},{"given":"Hanen","family":"Nouri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technische Universit\u00e4t Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"},{"name":"National Engineering School of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}]},{"given":"Hamadi","family":"Ghariani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Engineering School of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7166-1266","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olfa","family":"Kanoun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technische Universit\u00e4t Chemnitz, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Kiran, C.R., and Sundresan, A. (2015). Thermal Degradation Studies on Edible Oil during Deep Fat Frying Process. [Ph.D. Thesis, Cochin University of Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Sangdehi, S.K. (2005). Quality Evaluation of Frying Oil and Chicken Nuggets Using Visible\/Near-Infrared Hyper-Spectral Analysis. [Ph.D. Thesis, McGill University]."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1366","article-title":"Food technology","volume":"4","author":"Firestone","year":"1993","journal-title":"Inf. Int. News Fats Oils Relat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2006.05.034","article-title":"Applications of Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy to edible oils","volume":"573","author":"Vlachos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/0308-8146(95)00213-8","article-title":"Classification of edible fats and oils by principal component analysis of fourier transform infrared spectra","volume":"57","author":"Dupuy","year":"1996","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2009.10.008","article-title":"Application of near infrared and mid infrared spectroscopy as a rapid tool to classify extra virgin olive oil on the basis of fruity attribute intensity","volume":"43","author":"Sinelli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2010.03.080","article-title":"Characterisation of table olive cultivar by near infrared spectroscopy","volume":"122","author":"Casale","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1007\/s11746-001-0360-6","article-title":"Comparison of near-infrared, Fourier transform-infrared, and Fourier transform-Raman methods for determining olive pomace oil adulteration in extra virgin olive oil","volume":"78","author":"Yang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7628","DOI":"10.1039\/C4AY00703D","article-title":"Application of Fourier transform near-infrared spectroscopy to the quantification and monitoring of carbonyl value in frying oils","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"European Communities (2003). On the Characteristics of Olive Oil and Olive Residue Oil and on the Relevant Methods of Analysis, Office for official publications of the European Communities. CONSLEG: 1991R258-01\/11\/2005."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazzerini, C., and Domenici, V. (2017). Pigments in extra-virgin olive oils produced in Tuscany (Italy) in different years. Foods, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods6040025"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2007.02.033","article-title":"Geographic origins and compositions of virgin olive oils determinated by chemometric analysis of NIR spectra","volume":"595","author":"Galtier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3535","DOI":"10.1021\/jf990009o","article-title":"Phenolic compounds in Spanish olive oils","volume":"47","author":"Brenes","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2007.12.035","article-title":"Dielectric properties of edible oils and fatty acids as a function of frequency, temperature, moisture and composition","volume":"88","author":"Lizhi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2009.06.045","article-title":"Discrimination of olive oil adulterated with vegetable oils using dielectric spectroscopy","volume":"96","author":"Lizhi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11355","DOI":"10.1021\/jf402943b","article-title":"Correlation of basic oil quality indices and electrical properties of model vegetable oil systems","volume":"61","author":"Prevc","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2947","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2321323","article-title":"Fast and accurate determination of olive oil acidity by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy","volume":"14","author":"Grossi","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2012.10.031","article-title":"A capacitive technique to assess water content in extra virgin olive oils","volume":"116","author":"Ragni","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1109\/19.872917","article-title":"Limitations of a relaxation oscillator in capacitance measurements","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.1981.1051610","article-title":"A voltage-controlled switched-capacitor relaxation oscillator","volume":"16","author":"Martin","year":"1981","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1109\/19.199446","article-title":"A low-cost, smart capacitive position sensor","volume":"41","author":"Toth","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(94)80113-4","article-title":"A smart capacitive absolute angular-position sensor","volume":"41","author":"Meijer","year":"1994","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.08.020","article-title":"Differential capacitive sensing circuit for a multi-electrode capacitive force sensor","volume":"234","author":"Brookhuis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Iliev, B.P., Nihtianov, S.N., Shterev, G.P., and Meijer, G.C. (2001, January 7). A multi-period interface system for impedance measurements. Proceedings of the First ISA\/IEEE Conference on Sensors for Industry, Rosemont, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1109\/19.492782","article-title":"A novel low-cost capacitive-sensor interface","volume":"45","author":"Meijer","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1109\/19.58630","article-title":"A switched-capacitor interface for capacitive sensors based on relaxation oscillators","volume":"39","author":"Cichocki","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1109\/82.326597","article-title":"High-accuracy circuits for on-chip capacitance ratio testing or sensor readout","volume":"41","author":"Cao","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II Analog. Digit. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2495719","article-title":"An easy-to-interface CDC with an efficient automatic calibration","volume":"65","author":"Sreenath","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2660523","article-title":"A Switched-Capacitor Circuit-Based Digitizer for Efficient Interfacing of Parallel RC Sensors","volume":"17","author":"Sreenath","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/6\/5\/019","article-title":"A microcontroller-based scheme for measurement of L and C","volume":"6","author":"Atmanand","year":"1995","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.1987.6312572","article-title":"Capacitance-to-phase angle conversion for the detection of extremely small capacities","volume":"1001","author":"Wolffenbuttel","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11351","DOI":"10.3390\/s140711351","article-title":"A high resolution capacitive sensing system for the measurement of water content in crude oil","volume":"14","author":"Aslam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/4\/3\/012","article-title":"High-accuracy measurement techniques for capacitance transducers","volume":"4","author":"Marioli","year":"1993","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1109\/19.543992","article-title":"A self-balancing circuit to measure capacitance and loss conductance for industrial transducer applications","volume":"45","author":"Yang","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3735\/21\/3\/001","article-title":"Electronic transducers for industrial measurement of low value capacitances","volume":"21","author":"Huang","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1177\/014233128801000206","article-title":"A capacitance-based solids concentration transducer with high immunity to interference from the electrostatic charge generated in solids\/air two-component flows","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"1988","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1109\/19.744628","article-title":"An interface circuit for high-accuracy signal processing of differential-capacitance transducers","volume":"47","author":"Mochizuki","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1109\/19.755066","article-title":"A sensitive differential capacitance to voltage converter for sensor applications","volume":"48","author":"Lotters","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02541345","article-title":"Review of stability measurements for frying oils and fried food flavor","volume":"71","author":"Melton","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02523926","article-title":"Changes in the characteristics and composition of oils during deep-fat frying","volume":"73","author":"Tyagi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3841.2007.00352.x","article-title":"Chemistry of deep-fat frying oils","volume":"72","author":"Choe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"3","article-title":"Production and Composition of Frying Fats","volume":"2","author":"Choe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep. Fry."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.1314","article-title":"The effect of process time and temperature on the accumulation of polar compounds in cottonseed oil during deep-fat frying","volume":"83","author":"Houhoula","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1007\/s11746-011-1788-x","article-title":"Changes in Total Polar Compounds, Peroxide Value, Total Phenols and Antioxidant Activity of Various Oils Used in Deep Fat Frying","volume":"88","author":"Karakaya","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02665369","article-title":"Chemical reactions involved in the deep-fat frying of foods1","volume":"55","author":"Chang","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2014.05.025","article-title":"Study of physicochemical properties of edible oil and evaluation of frying oil quality by Fourier Transform-Infrared (FT-IR) Spectroscopy","volume":"10","author":"Zahir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.1977.1069319","article-title":"Distributed capacitance of planar electrodes in optic and acoustic surface wave devices","volume":"13","author":"Wei","year":"1977","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(95)85053-8","article-title":"Theoretical and experimental determination of cell constants of planar-interdigitated electrolyte conductivity sensors","volume":"24","author":"Olthuis","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fendri, A., Ghariani, H., and Kanoun, O. (2017, January 28\u201331). Dielectric spectroscopy for assessment of water content in edible oils. Proceedings of the 2017 14th International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices (SSD), Marrakech, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/SSD.2017.8167027"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2014.07.006","article-title":"A novel electrochemical method for olive oil acidity determination","volume":"45","author":"Grossi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microelectron. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1007\/s12161-015-0324-2","article-title":"A quick method for determining total polar compounds of frying oils using electric conductivity","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"142","article-title":"Capacitive sensor probe to assess frying oil degradation","volume":"2","author":"Khaled","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inf. Process. Agric."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/19\/4299\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:27:29Z","timestamp":1760189249000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/19\/4299"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,4]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s19194299"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19194299","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,4]]}}}