{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T15:30:50Z","timestamp":1778081450050,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,19]],"date-time":"2019-10-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1571443200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Combining research areas of biomechanics and pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR) provides a very promising way for pedestrian positioning in environments where Global Positioning System (GPS) signals are degraded or unavailable. In recent years, the PDR systems based on a smartphone\u2019s built-in inertial sensors have attracted much attention in such environments. However, smartphone-based PDR systems are facing various challenges, especially the heading drift, which leads to the phenomenon of estimated walking path passing through walls. In this paper, the 2D PDR system is implemented by using a pocket-worn smartphone, and then enhanced by introducing a map-matching algorithm that employs a particle filter to prevent the wall-crossing problem. In addition, to extend the PDR system for 3D applications, the smartphone\u2019s built-in barometer is used to measure the pressure variation associated to the pedestrian\u2019s vertical displacement. Experimental results show that the map-matching algorithm based on a particle filter can effectively solve the wall-crossing problem and improve the accuracy of indoor PDR. By fusing the barometer readings, the vertical displacement can be calculated to derive the floor transition information. Despite the inherent sensor noises and complex pedestrian movements, smartphone-based 3D pedestrian positioning systems have considerable potential for indoor location-based services (LBS).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204554","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,21]],"date-time":"2019-10-21T03:40:29Z","timestamp":1571629229000},"page":"4554","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Smartphone-Based 3D Indoor Pedestrian Positioning through Multi-Modal Data Fusion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1510-5289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongyu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"A Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wanli","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6846-546X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sen","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhelong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A Key Laboratory of Intelligent Control and Optimization for Industrial Equipment of Ministry of Education, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianjun","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Institute of Spacecraft System Engineering, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thulin, E., Vilhelmson, B., and Schwanen, T. (2019). Absent friends? Smartphones, mediated presence, and the recoupling of online social contact in everyday life. Ann. Am. Assoc. Geogr., 1\u201318.","DOI":"10.1080\/24694452.2019.1629868"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1108\/SR-03-2015-0032","article-title":"Smooth estimation of human foot motion for zero-velocity-update-aided inertial pedestrian navigation system","volume":"35","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, J., Lee, J., and Eom, D.-S. (2018). Smartphone-based traveled distance estimation using individual walking patterns for indoor localization. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18093149"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1108\/01439911311297702","article-title":"A time-controllable Allan variance method for MEMS IMU","volume":"40","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ind. Robot"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3170","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2015.2430357","article-title":"Stance-phase detection for ZUPT-aided foot-mounted pedestrian navigation system","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE-ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2005.140","article-title":"Pedestrian tracking with shoe-mounted inertial sensors","volume":"25","author":"Foxlin","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2227593","article-title":"Inertial sensor based indoor localization and monitoring system for emergency responders","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3250","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2016.2515065","article-title":"Context-aided inertial navigation via belief condensation","volume":"64","author":"Prieto","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, C., Uchiyama, H., Thomas, D., Shimada, A., and Taniguchi, R.-I. (2019). Indoor positioning system based on chest-mounted IMU. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020420"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"2075","article-title":"Walking gait step length asymmetry induced by handheld device","volume":"25","author":"Abid","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91063","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2927053","article-title":"Pedestrian dead reckoning using pocket-worn smartphone","volume":"7","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.875664","article-title":"Quaternion-based extended Kalman filter for determining orientation by inertial and magnetic sensing","volume":"53","author":"Sabatini","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2008.923738","article-title":"Nonlinear complementary filters on the special orthogonal group","volume":"53","author":"Mahony","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Madgwick, S.O.H., Harrison, A.J.L., and Vaidyanathan, R. (July, January 29). Estimation of IMU and MARG orientation using a gradient descent algorithm. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, Zurich, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2504078","article-title":"Using distributed wearable sensors to measure and evaluate human lower limb motions","volume":"65","author":"Qiu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan3010044","article-title":"A novel map-based dead-reckoning algorithm for indoor localization","volume":"3","author":"Bao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Sens. Actuator Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Wang, J., Zhang, J., and Han, H. (2019). An indoor localization method for pedestrians base on combined UWB\/PDR\/Floor map. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19112578"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H.Y., Hsieh, C.Y., Liu, K.C., Cheng, H.C., Hsu, S.J., and Chan, C.T. (2019). Multi-sensor fusion approach for improving map-based indoor pedestrian localization. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173786"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5023","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.2013.2257915","article-title":"On the performance limits of map-aware localization","volume":"59","author":"Montorsi","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1007\/s12541-018-0035-x","article-title":"Indoor parking localization based on dual weighted particle filter","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Precis. Eng. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49705","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2868792","article-title":"Optimal heading estimation based multidimensional particle filter for pedestrian indoor positioning","volume":"6","author":"Pei","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beauregard, S., Widyawan, T., and Klepal, M. (2008, January 25\u201327). Indoor PDR performance enhancement using minimal map information and particle filters information and particle filters. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2008.4570050"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davidson, P., Collin, J., and Takala, J. (2010, January 14\u201315). Application of particle filters for indoor positioning using floor plans. Proceedings of the Ubiquitous Positioning Indoor Navigation and Location Based Service, Kirkkonummi, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/UPINLBS.2010.5653830"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1587","article-title":"Real-time Forest Fire Monitoring System Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"13","author":"Wardihani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Eng. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alb\u00e9ri, M., Baldoncini, M., Bottardi, C., Chiarelli, E., Fiorentini, G., Kgc, R., Realini, E., Reguzzoni, M., Rossi, L., and Sampietro, D. (2017). Accuracy of flight altitude measured with low-cost GNSS, radar and barometer sensors: Implications for airborne radiometric surveys. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081889"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"6977","article-title":"Motion recognition-based 3D pedestrian navigation system using smartphone","volume":"16","author":"Shin","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landa, V., Ben-Moshe, B., Hacohen, S., and Shvalb, N. (2018, January 24\u201327). GoIn-An Accurate 3D InDoor Navigation Framework for Mobile Devices. Proceedings of the IEEE 2018 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Nantes, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2018.8533810"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, H., and Lee, K.M. (2017, January 22\u201329). Joint Estimation of Camera Pose, Depth, Deblurring, and Super-Resolution from a Blurred Image Sequence. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Venice, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2017.494"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2019.03.002","article-title":"Adaptive gait detection based on foot-mounted inertial sensors and multi-sensor fusion","volume":"52","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8514","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2866802","article-title":"Heading drift reduction for foot-mounted inertial navigation system via multi-sensor fusion and dual-gait analysis","volume":"19","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Chen, S. (2013). Gait Feature Extraction from Inertial Body Sensor Networks for Medical Applications. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Virginia]."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Ghorbel, M.B., Khalfi, B., Hamdaoui, B., and Guizani, M. (2014, January 8\u201312). Resources allocation for large-scale dynamic spectrum access system using particle filtering. Proceedings of the IEEE Globecom Workshops, Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keller, F., Willemsen, T., and Sternberg, H. (2012, January 13\u201315). Calibration of smartphones for the use in indoor navigation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2012.6418942"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Willemsen, T., Keller, F., and Sternberg, H. (2014, January 27\u201330). Concept for building a MEMS based indoor localization system. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Bexco, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2014.7275461"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24595","DOI":"10.3390\/s150924595","article-title":"Integrated WiFi\/PDR\/Smartphone using an unscented kalman filter algorithm for 3D indoor localization","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2017.2649918","article-title":"A magnetic ranging-aided dead-reckoning positioning system for pedestrian applications","volume":"66","author":"Pasku","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6116","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2791579","article-title":"Pedestrian dead-reckoning indoor localization based on OS-ELM","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2840525","article-title":"Confidence-interval-fuzzy-model-based indoor localization","volume":"66","author":"Tomazic","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/20\/4554\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:27:54Z","timestamp":1760189274000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/20\/4554"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,19]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s19204554"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19204554","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,19]]}}}