{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T16:12:21Z","timestamp":1777651941024,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,24]],"date-time":"2019-10-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1571875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009025","name":"Accelerated Innovation Research Initiative Turning Top Science and Ideas into High-Impact Values","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JPMJAC15F1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPMJAC15F1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009025","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["15K16035"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["15K16035"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Variable focus lenses are capable of dynamically varying their focal lengths. The focal length is varied by adjusting the curvature of the refractive surface and the media on both sides of the lens. The dynamic response is one of the most important criteria to determine the performance of variable focus lens. In this work, we investigated critical factors that affect the dynamic response of liquid-filled variable focus lens with a large aperture size. Based on a theoretical analysis of a circular disk representative of a deformable surface, we found that the dynamic response is significantly influenced by the diameter, thickness, and stiffness of the disk because these factors determine its first natural frequency. We also studied the dynamic response of elastomer-based liquid-filled variable focus lens prototype with different aperture sizes (20 and 30 mm) by using experiments and we found that the lens with the smaller aperture size had an excellent dynamic response.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19214624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,25]],"date-time":"2019-10-25T04:41:27Z","timestamp":1571978487000},"page":"4624","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Dynamic Response of Elastomer-Based Liquid-Filled Variable Focus Lens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Lihui","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Guangdong Institute of Semiconductor Industrial Technology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, No.363 Changxing Rd., Tianhe, Guangzhou 510-650, China"},{"name":"Department of Information Physics and Computing, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Masatoshi","family":"Ishikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Physics and Computing, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan"},{"name":"Department of Creative Informatics, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1779954","article-title":"Variable-focus liquid lens for miniature cameras","volume":"85","author":"Kuiper","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3362","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.6.003362","article-title":"Design of high-performance adaptive objective lens with large optical depth scanning range for ultrabroad near infrared microscopic imaging","volume":"6","author":"Lan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s101890070029","article-title":"Variable focal lens controlled by an external voltage: An application of electrowetting","volume":"3","author":"Berge","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. E"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4101","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.14.004101","article-title":"Variable focus dielectric liquid droplet lens","volume":"14","author":"Cheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05024","article-title":"Adaptive liquid microlenses activated by stimuli-responsive hydrogels","volume":"442","author":"Dong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1656","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201403942","article-title":"Ultrafast all-polymer electrically tunable silicone lenses","volume":"25","author":"Maffli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122501","DOI":"10.7567\/JJAP.56.122501","article-title":"Paraxial ray solution for liquid-filled variable focus lenses","volume":"56","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31708","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.031708","article-title":"Dielectric-elastomer-based fabrication method for varifocal microlens array","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25839","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.025839","article-title":"Displaceable and focus-tunable electrowetting optofluidic lens","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.41.000404","article-title":"Focal-length-tunable elastomer-based liquid-filled plano\u2013convex mini lens","volume":"41","author":"Fang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122201","DOI":"10.3788\/COL201816.122201","article-title":"Rapid fabrication of mini droplet lens array with tunable focal length","volume":"16","author":"Dai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12430","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.012430","article-title":"A novel adaptive mechanical-wetting lens for visible and near infrared imaging","volume":"18","author":"Xu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4528","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.19.004528","article-title":"Variable-focus terahertz lens","volume":"19","author":"Scherger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, H., and Wu, S.-T. (2012). Introduction to Adaptive Lenses, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118270080"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.12.002138","article-title":"Variable-focus lens with 1-kHz bandwidth","volume":"12","author":"Oku","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221108","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3143624","article-title":"High-speed liquid lens with 2 ms response and 80.3 nm root-mean-square wavefront error","volume":"94","author":"Oku","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19448","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.019448","article-title":"An improved low-optical-power variable focus lens with a large aperture","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11813","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.17.011813","article-title":"Optical characterization of adaptive fluidic silicone-membrane lenses","volume":"17","author":"Schneider","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4800603","article-title":"Variable-focus lens with 30 mm optical aperture based on liquid\u2013membrane\u2013liquid structure","volume":"102","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1364\/AOP.5.000456","article-title":"Three-dimensional display technologies","volume":"5","author":"Geng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2012.11.001","article-title":"A volumetric 3D display based on a DLP projection engine","volume":"34","author":"Geng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30576","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.030576","article-title":"Low-cost, readily available 3D microscopy imaging system with variable focus spinner","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1109\/34.308479","article-title":"Shape from focus","volume":"16","author":"Nayar","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Meirovitch, L. (1967). Analytical Methods in Vibrations, Macmillan."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/21\/4624\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:29:03Z","timestamp":1760189343000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/21\/4624"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,24]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s19214624"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19214624","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,24]]}}}