{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T07:09:25Z","timestamp":1778915365668,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]],"date-time":"2019-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1573776000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Shanghai Sailing Program","award":["19YF1437200, 18YF1418600"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19YF1437200, 18YF1418600"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61803118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61803118"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Post Doc. Foundation of Heilongjiang Province","award":["LBH-Z17053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBH-Z17053"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As the restaurant industry is facing labor shortage issues, the use of meal delivery robots instead of waiters\/waitresses not only allows the customers to experience the impact of robot technology but also benefits the restaurant business financially by reducing labor costs. Most existing meal delivery robots employ magnetic navigation technologies, which require magnetic strip installation and changes to the restaurant decor. Once the moving path is changed, the magnetic strips need to be re-laid. This study proposes multisource information fusion, i.e., the fusion of ultra-wide band positioning technology with an odometer and a low-cost gyroscope accelerometer, to achieve the positioning of a non-rail meal delivery robot with navigation. By using a low-cost electronic compass and gyroscope accelerometer, the delivery robot can move along a fixed orbit in a flexible and cost-effective manner with steering control. Ultra-wide band (UWB) and track estimation algorithm are combined by extended Kalman filter (EKF), and the positioning error after fusion is about 15 cm, which is accepted by restaurants. In summary, the proposed approach has some potential for commercial applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19224980","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]],"date-time":"2019-11-15T11:24:32Z","timestamp":1573817072000},"page":"4980","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Design of a Low-Cost Indoor Navigation System for Food Delivery Robot Based on Multi-Sensor Information Fusion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3588-792X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunlong","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8803-910X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lianwu","family":"Guan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhanyuan","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chuanjiang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanbin","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"122","article-title":"Application of restaurant service robot","volume":"15","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wind Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wakita, Y., Tanaka, H., and Matsumoto, Y. (2017, January 5\u20138). Projection Function and Hand Pointerfor User Interface of Daily Service Robot. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), Macau, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBIO.2017.8324748"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kantharak, K., Somboonchai, C., Tuan, N.T., and Thinh, N.T. (2017, January 21\u201323). Design and development of service robot based human-robot interaction (HRI). Proceedings of the International Conference on System Science and Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSSE.2017.8030884"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hernandez-Mendez, S., Maldonado-Mendez, C., Marin-Hernandez, A., and Rios-Figueroa, H.V. (2017, January 22\u201324). Detecting falling people by autonomous service robots: A ROS module integration approach. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electronics, Communications and Computers, Cholula, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/CONIELECOMP.2017.7891823"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2015.1","article-title":"A participatory service platform for indoor location-based services","volume":"14","author":"Shin","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xin, J., Jiao, X.L., Yang, Y., and Liu, D. (2016, January 27\u201329). Visual navigation for mobile robot with Kinect camera in dynamic environment. Proceedings of the Chinese Control Conference, Chengdu, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ChiCC.2016.7554091"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gulalkari, A.V., Sheng, D., Pratama, P.S., Kim, H.K., Byun, G.S., and Kim, S.B. (2015, January 13\u201316). Kinect camera sensor-based object tracking and following of four wheel independent steering automatic guided vehicle using Kalman filter. Proceedings of the International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems, Busan, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAS.2015.7364622"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.3390\/mi6060793","article-title":"Pdr\/ins\/wifi integration based on handheld devices for indoor pedestrian navigation","volume":"6","author":"Haiyu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2016.05.007","article-title":"Lidar-based relative navigation with respect to non-cooperative objects","volume":"126","author":"Woods","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xujian, H., and Hao, W. (2016, January 17\u201318). WIFI indoor positioning algorithm based on improved Kalman filtering. Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Transportation, Big Data & Smart City (ICITBS), Changsha, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICITBS.2016.83"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Zhang, W., Hua, X., Yu, K., Qiu, W., and Zhang, S. (2016, January 4\u20137). Domain clustering based WiFi indoor positioning algorithm. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Alcala de Henares, Spain."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2883810","article-title":"A Novel NLOS Mitigation Algorithm for UWB Localization in Harsh Indoor Environments","volume":"68","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"225","article-title":"Performance analysis of Bluetooth Zigbee and Wi-Fi protocols in 2.4 GHz multi-standard Zero-IF receiver","volume":"89","author":"Rahman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Przeglad Elektrotechniczny"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/s11460-005-0008-6","article-title":"Indoor location algorithm based on the measurement of the received signal strength","volume":"1","author":"Ni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Front. Electr. Electron. Eng. China"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2008.2008846","article-title":"Ranging with ultrawide bandwidth signals in multipath environments","volume":"97","author":"Dardari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifacol.2017.08.962","article-title":"Enhanced MEMS SINS Aided Pipeline Surveying System by Pipeline Junction Detection in Small Diameter Pipeline","volume":"50","author":"Guan","year":"2017","journal-title":"IFAC-PapersOnLine"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krishnan, S., Sharma, P., Guoping, Z., and Woon, O.H. (2007, January 24\u201326). A UWB based localization system for indoor robot navigation. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference Ultra-Wideband, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUWB.2007.4380919"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baala, O., Zheng, Y., and Caminada, A. (2009, January 1\u20136). The impact of AP placement in WLAN-based indoor positioning system. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Networks, Gosier, Guadeloupe.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICN.2009.50"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2550","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2009.2029721","article-title":"Integration of UWB and wireless pressure mapping in surgical navigation","volume":"57","author":"Mahfouz","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050707","article-title":"Ultra wide band indoor positioning technologies: Analysis and recent advances","volume":"16","author":"Abdulrahman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2015.140872","article-title":"Target TOA association with the Hough Transform in UWB radars","volume":"52","author":"Sobhani","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3315","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2454672","article-title":"A modified nonlinear two-filter smoothing for high-precision airborne integrated GPS and inertial navigation","volume":"64","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2008, April 21). STM32 32-Bit Arm Cortex MCUs. Available online: https:\/\/www.st.com\/en\/microcontrollers-microprocessors\/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2013, July 11). Razor_imu_9dof. Available online: http:\/\/wiki.ros.org\/razor_imu_9dof."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Kais, M., Morin, S., De La Fortelle, A., and Laugier, C. (2004, January 6\u20139). Geometrical model to drive vision systems with error propagation. Proceedings of the ICARCV 2004 Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision Conference, Kunming, China."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1346","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.875664","article-title":"Quaternion-based extended Kalman filter for determining orientation by inertial and magnetic sensing","volume":"53","author":"Sabatini","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Yun, X., Lizarraga, M., Bachmann, E.R., and McGhee, R.B. (2003, January 27\u201331). An improved quaternion-based Kalman filter for real-time tracking of rigid body orientation. Proceedings of the 2003 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Zeng, Y., Kirkland, J.W., Anderson, J.F., Leftin, L.J., and Briske, R.W. (2011). Methods and Systems for Implementing an Iterated Extended Kalman Filter within a Navigation System. (7873472 B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2006.08.004","article-title":"Observer Kalman filter identification of an autonomous underwater vehicle","volume":"15","author":"Tiano","year":"2007","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/22\/4980\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:34:45Z","timestamp":1760189685000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/22\/4980"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s19224980"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19224980","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,15]]}}}