{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T16:34:17Z","timestamp":1783096457878,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]],"date-time":"2019-12-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1575504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2018YEB1004003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YEB1004003"]}]},{"name":"China grants","award":["U1636215"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U1636215"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the advancement of cloud computing and fog computing, more and more services and data are being moved from local servers to the fog and cloud for processing and storage. Videos are an important part of this movement. However, security issues involved in video moving have drawn wide attention. Although many video-encryption algorithms have been developed to protect local videos, these algorithms fail to solve the new problems faced on the media cloud, such as how to provide a video encryption service to devices with low computing power, how to meet the different encryption requirements for different type of videos, and how to ensure massive video encryption efficiency. To solve these three problems, we propose a cloud-fog-local video encryption framework which consists of a three-layer service model and corresponding key management strategies, a fine-grain video encryption algorithm based on the network abstract layer unit (NALU), and a massive video encryption framework based on Spark. The experiment proves that our proposed solution can meet the different encryption requirements for public videos and private videos. Moreover, in the experiment environment, our encryption algorithm for public videos reaches a speed of 1708 Mbps, and can provide a real-time encryption service for at least 42 channels of 4K-resolution videos.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19245366","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]],"date-time":"2019-12-05T11:16:31Z","timestamp":1575544591000},"page":"5366","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["A Fine-Grained Video Encryption Service Based on the Cloud-Fog-Local Architecture for Public and Private Videos"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Hao","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Post-Doctoral Research Center of Zhuhai Da Hengqin Science and Technology Development Co. Ltd., Zhuhai 519000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7546-852X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhaoquan","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lianbing","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Post-Doctoral Research Center of Zhuhai Da Hengqin Science and Technology Development Co. Ltd., Zhuhai 519000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Engineering, Communication University of China, Beijing 100024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9409-5359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhihong","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cyberspace Institute of Advanced Technology, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2019.10.009","article-title":"Edge-based differential privacy computing for sensor-cloud systems","volume":"136","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Parallel Distrib. Comput."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2009.06.004","article-title":"A survey of video encryption algorithms","volume":"29","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2011.2162290","article-title":"A survey of h.264 avc\/svc encryption","volume":"22","author":"Stutz","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7868","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2016.2541862","article-title":"Secure and privacy-aware cloud-assisted video reporting service in 5G-enabled vehicular networks","volume":"65","author":"Eiza","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pei, D., Guo, X., and Zhang, J. (2017, January 21\u201323). A video encryption service based on cloud computing. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 7th International Conference on Electronics Information and Emergency Communication (ICEIEC2017), Shenzhen, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEIEC.2017.8076536"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.12.054","article-title":"A data-driven method for future Internet route decision modeling","volume":"95","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7953","DOI":"10.3390\/s150407953","article-title":"Fast video encryption using the H. 264 error propagation property for smart mobile devices","volume":"15","author":"Chung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaknjo, A., Rao, M., Omerdic, E., Newe, T., and Toal, D. (2019). Real-Time Secure\/Unsecure Video Latency Measurement\/Analysis with FPGA-Based Bump-in-the-Wire Security. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19132984"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, T., Chen, X., and Wang, S. (2013, January 15\u201319). Pseudo-2D-matching based dual-coder architecture for screen contents coding. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo Workshops (ICMEW), San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMEW.2013.6618315"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4285","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2907754","article-title":"Real Time Lateral Movement Detection based on Evidence Reasoning Network for Edge Computing Environment","volume":"15","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Metzler, R.E.L., and Agaian, S.S. (2010, January 10\u201313). Selective region encryption using a fast shape adaptive transform. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC2010), Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSMC.2010.5642299"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrillo, P., Kalva, H., and Magliveras, S. (2008, January 23\u201326). Compression independent object encryption for ensuring privacy in video surveillance. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo (ICME2008), Hannover, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICME.2008.4607424"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ifs.2012.0349","article-title":"An efficient motion reference structure based selective encryption algorithm for H.264 videos","volume":"8","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., and Wang, X. (2014, January 16\u201318). A new selective video encryption algorithm for the H.264 standard. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Conference on Progress in Informatics and Computing (PIC2014), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIC.2014.6972340"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2013.2293955","article-title":"Perceptual Encryption of H.264 Videos: Embedding Sign-Flips into the Integer-Based Transforms","volume":"9","author":"Zeng","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1109\/TCC.2015.2469651","article-title":"Fully reversible privacy region protection for cloud video surveillance","volume":"5","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cloud Comput."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Shahid, Z., Chaumont, M., and Puech, W. (2010, January 23\u201327). Over the real-time selective encryption of AVS video coding standard. Proceedings of the 2010 18th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO2010), Aalborg, Denmark."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2011.2129090","article-title":"Fast Protection of H.264\/AVC by Selective Encryption of CAVLC and CABAC for I and P Frames","volume":"21","author":"Shahid","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., and Zhuo, L. (2012, January 25\u201327). A content-based encryption scheme for wireless H.264 compressed videos. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP2012), Huangshan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCSP.2012.6543022"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2013.6626250","article-title":"Encryption for high efficiency video coding with video adaptation capabilities","volume":"59","author":"Boho","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2019.04.011","article-title":"Block-DEF: A secure digital evidence framework using blockchain","volume":"491","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Wee, S.J., and Apostolopoulos, J.G. (2001, January 7\u201311). Secure scalable video streaming for wireless networks. Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/371513","article-title":"A speed-adaptive media encryption scheme for real-time recording and playback system","volume":"2010","author":"Xiao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eurasip J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2015.2491259","article-title":"Cost-effective security support in real-time video surveillance","volume":"11","author":"Puvvadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1145\/3324926","article-title":"Crowdsourcing mechanism for trust evaluation in cpcs based on intelligent mobile edge computing","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Intell. Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2005.65","article-title":"Enabling Video Privacy through Computer Vision","volume":"3","author":"Senior","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Secur. Priv."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, J., Su, Z., Wang, S., and Li, J. (2017). Crowd Sensing-Enabling Security Service Recommendation for Social Fog Computing Systems. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081744"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Z., Luo, C., Qiu, J., Du, X., and Guizani, M. (2019). A Distributed Deep Learning System for Web Attack Detection on Edge Devices. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform.","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2938778"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, N., Asim, M., Tariq, N., Baker, T., and Abbas, S. (2019). A mechanism for securing IoT-enabled applications at the fog layer. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan8010016"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2018.07.022","article-title":"A novel security media cloud framework","volume":"74","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez-Iborra, R., S\u00e1nchez-G\u00f3mez, J., P\u00e9rez, S., Fern\u00e1ndez, P.J., Santa, J., Hern\u00e1ndez-Ramos, J., and Skarmeta, A.F. (2018). Enhancing lorawan security through a lightweight and authenticated key management approach. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061833"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, T., Bhuiyan, M.Z.A., Wang, G., Qi, L., Wu, J., and Hayajneh, T. (2019). Preserving Balance between Privacy and Data Integrity in Edge-Assisted Internet of Things. IEEE Int. Things J., (in press).","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2951687"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2019, October 09). FFMPEG. Available online: http:\/\/www.FFmpeg.org."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferroukhi, M., Ouahabi, A., Attari, M., Habchi, Y., and Taleb-Ahmed, A. (2019). Medical Video Coding Based on 2nd-Generation Wavelets: Performance Evaluation. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8010088"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, L. (1996, January 18\u201322). Methods for encrypting and decrypting MPEG video data efficiently. Proceedings of the fourth ACM international conference on Multimedia, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/244130.244209"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2018.2808174","article-title":"Energy-Aware Encryption for Securing Video Transmission in Internet of Multimedia Things","volume":"29","author":"Thiyagarajan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ipr.2017.0022","article-title":"Secure chaotic dual encryption scheme for H. 264\/AVC video conferencing protection","volume":"12","author":"Khlif","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Yeung, S.K.A., Zhu, S., and Zeng, B. (2010, January 25\u201327). Quality assessment for a perceptual video encryption system. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Information Security, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7365","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-018-6494-3","article-title":"Efficient encryption technique for H. 264\/AVC videos based on CABAC and logistic map","volume":"78","author":"Tabash","year":"2019","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shifa, A., Asghar, M.N., Noor, S., Gohar, N., and Fleury, M. (2019). Lightweight Cipher for H. 264 Videos in the Internet of Multimedia Things with Encryption Space Ratio Diagnostics. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201901.0308.v1"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1636","DOI":"10.1109\/TMM.2017.2777470","article-title":"HEVC selective encryption using RC6 block cipher technique","volume":"20","author":"Sallam","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Multimed."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66028","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2916484","article-title":"Commutative Encryption and data hiding in HEVC Video Compression","volume":"7","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2019, October 09). HTTP Live Streaming. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc8216."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5971","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2910217","article-title":"Evaluating reputation management schemes of internet of vehicles based on evolutionary game theory","volume":"68","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/24\/5366\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:40:30Z","timestamp":1760190030000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/24\/5366"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12]]}},"alternative-id":["s19245366"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19245366","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,5]]}}}