{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T23:20:12Z","timestamp":1789773612318,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]],"date-time":"2019-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576627200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100014440","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci\u00f3n y Universidades","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DPI2017-83068-P"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DPI2017-83068-P"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100014440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Industrial adoption of additive manufacturing (AM) processes demands improvement in the geometrical accuracy of manufactured parts. One key achievement would be to ensure that manufactured layer contours match the correspondent theoretical profiles, which would require integration of on-machine measurement devices capable of digitizing individual layers. Flatbed scanners should be considered as serious candidates, since they can achieve high scanning speeds at low prices. Nevertheless, image deformation phenomena reduce their suitability as two-dimensional verification devices. In this work, the possibilities of using flatbed scanners for AM contour verification are investigated. Image distortion errors are characterized and discussed and special attention is paid to the plication effect caused by contact imaging sensor (CIS) scanners. To compensate this phenomena, a new local distortion adjustment (LDA) method is proposed and its distortion correction capabilities are evaluated upon actual layer contours manufactured on a fused filament fabrication (FFF) machine. This proposed method is also compared to conventional global distortion adjustment (GDA). Results reveal quasi-systematic deformations of the images which could be minimized by means of distortion correction. Nevertheless, the irregular nature of such a distortion and the superposition of different errors penalize the use of GDA, to the point that it should not be used with CIS scanners. Conclusions indicate that LDA-based correction would enable the use of flatbed scanners in AM for on-machine verification tasks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20010001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,23]],"date-time":"2019-12-23T03:15:01Z","timestamp":1577070901000},"page":"1","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Layer Contour Verification in Additive Manufacturing by Means of Commercial Flatbed Scanners"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7867-0010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Blanco","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, c\/Pedro Puig Adam, E.D.O.5, 33203 Gijon, Asturias, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8329-9391","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Fernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, c\/Pedro Puig Adam, E.D.O.5, 33203 Gijon, Asturias, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3567-246X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alvaro","family":"Noriega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, c\/Pedro Puig Adam, E.D.O.5, 33203 Gijon, Asturias, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9042-148X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Braulio J.","family":"Alvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, c\/Pedro Puig Adam, E.D.O.5, 33203 Gijon, Asturias, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gonzalo","family":"Vali\u00f1o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, c\/Pedro Puig Adam, E.D.O.5, 33203 Gijon, Asturias, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Basiliere, P., and Shanler, M. (2014). Hype Cycle for 3D Printing, Technical Report (G00263487) for Gartner Inc."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wohlers, T.T., Campbell, I., Diegel, O., Huff, R., and Kowen, J. (2019). Wohlers Report 2019. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing State of the Industry, Wohlers Associates Inc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2018.02.003","article-title":"The barriers to the progression of additive manufacture: Perspectives from UK industry","volume":"198","author":"Attallah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1007\/s001700050022","article-title":"Part build orientations based on volumetric error in fused deposition modeling","volume":"16","author":"Masood","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2301","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-013-5196-2","article-title":"Dimensional Accuracy Improvement of FDM Square Cross-Section Parts Using Artificial Neural Networks and an Optimization Algorithm","volume":"69","author":"Noriega","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-015-6992-7","article-title":"Triangular mesh offset aiming to enhance Fused Deposition Modeling accuracy","volume":"80","author":"Boschetto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rcim.2017.09.007","article-title":"Warpage of FDM parts: Experimental tests and analytic model","volume":"50","author":"Armillotta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Robot. Cim. Int. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ikeuchi, D., Vargas-Uscategui, A., Wu, X., and King, P.C. (2019). Neural Network Modelling of Track Profile in Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12172827"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2017.07.001","article-title":"Additive manufacturing: Scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and opportunities","volume":"21","author":"Tofail","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Vali\u00f1o, G., Rico, J.C., Fernandez, P., Alvarez, B.J., and Fernandez, Y. (2019, January 19\u201321). Capability of conoscopic holography for digitizing and measuring of layer thickness on PLA parts built by FFF. Proceedings of the 8th Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference (MESIC 2009), Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-010-2882-1","article-title":"Studies on profile error and extruding aperture for the RP parts using the fused deposition modelling process","volume":"53","author":"Chang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Cooke, A.L., and Moylan, S.P. (2008, January 4\u20136). Process intermittent measurement for powder-bed based additive manufacturing. Proceedings of the 22nd International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium (SFF 2008), Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Pedersen, D.B. (2012). Additive Manufacturing: Multi Material Processing and Part Quality Control. [Ph.D. Thesis, The Technical University of Denmark]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skala, V., Pan, R., and Nedved, O. (July, January 30). Making 3D Replicas Using a Flatbed Scanner and a 3D Printer. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications (ICCSA 2014), Guimaraes, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-09153-2_6"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"51","article-title":"Determination of the size distribution and percentage of broken kernels of rice using flatbed scanning and image analysis","volume":"37","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"940","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-008-1405-9","article-title":"A simple approach to fine wire diameter measurement using a high-resolution flatbed scanner","volume":"40","author":"Kee","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Tech."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3248","DOI":"10.1039\/C4LC00530A","article-title":"Biomedical imaging and sensing using flatbed scanners","volume":"14","author":"Ozcan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconres.2005.05.004","article-title":"Estimation of the structure of air entrained concrete using a flatbed scanner","volume":"35","author":"Zalocha","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cement Concrete Res."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"111","article-title":"Evaluating commercial scanners for astronomical image digitization","volume":"Volume 410","author":"Osborn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Preserving Astronomy\u2019s Photographic Legacy: Current State and the Future of North American Astronomical Plates"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107562","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.107562","article-title":"A high-resolution and large field-of-view scanner for in-line characterization of powder bed defects during additive manufacturing","volume":"164","author":"Phuc","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"182","article-title":"On the automated assessment of geometric scanner accuracy","volume":"31","author":"Seywald","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"93960E:1","article-title":"MFP scanner motion characterization using self-printed target","volume":"Volume 9396","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Image Quality and System Performance XII, Proceedings of the SPIE\/IS&T Electronic Imaging Conference, San Francisco, CA, USA, 8 February 2015"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"356","article-title":"High-precision measuring scale rulers for flatbed scanners","volume":"34","author":"Poliakow","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bulg. J. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"107003:1","article-title":"Calibration of a flatbed scanner for traceable paper area measurement","volume":"20","author":"Hemming","year":"2009","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dimensional Measurement Variation of Scanned Objects Using Flatbed Scanners","volume":"28","author":"Jones","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Technol. Manag. Appl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3744","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.003744","article-title":"Evaluation of resolution and periodic errors of a flatbed scanner used for digitizing spectroscopic photographic plates","volume":"56","author":"Wyatt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.05.029","article-title":"A model to transform a commercial flatbed scanner into a two-coordinates measuring machine","volume":"73","author":"Maresca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/S0007-8506(07)60515-0","article-title":"Self-calibration: Reversal, redundancy, error separation, and \u2018absolute testing\u2019","volume":"45","author":"Evans","year":"1996","journal-title":"CIRP Ann. Manuf. Techn."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2017.09.145","article-title":"Development of an error compensation case study for 3D printers","volume":"13","author":"Majarena","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Ogrizovi\u0107, V., Miljkovi\u0107, S., Del\u010dev, S., and Gu\u010devi\u0107, J. (September, January 30). A Flatbed Scanner as a Platform for Calibrating Line Scales. Proceedings of the XXI IMEKO World Congress \u201cMeasurement in Research and Industry\u201d, Prague, Czech Republic."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.4236\/mi.2018.72002","article-title":"Geometric Calibration of Low-Cost Flatbed Scanners for Large Scale Mapping Applications","volume":"7","author":"Elaksher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Modern Instrumentation"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Emgu CV: Cross Platform (2019, June 15). Net Wrapper to the OpenCV Image Processing Library. Available online: http:\/\/www.emgu.com\/wiki\/index.php\/Main_Page."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","article-title":"A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms","volume":"9","author":"Otsu","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE T. Syst. Man. Cyb."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Philipp, R. (2019, September 25). Industrial Contact Image Sensor Operation Manual V 4.00. Tichawa Vision GmbH. Available online: https:\/\/tichawa-vision.de\/pdf\/manual_en.pdf."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/1\/1\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:43:11Z","timestamp":1760190191000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/1\/1"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s20010001"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20010001","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,18]]}}}