{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T15:52:01Z","timestamp":1779119521470,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]],"date-time":"2019-12-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1577664000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2018YFC1507200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1507200"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41702328"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41702328"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hubei Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2019CFB585"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019CFB585"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan)","award":["CUGL170813 and CUGQYZX1747"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUGL170813 and CUGQYZX1747"]}]},{"name":"Xi\u2032an Center of Geological Survey, China Geological Survey","award":["DD20190714"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DD20190714"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A laboratory model test is an effective method for studying landslide risk mitigation. In this study, thermal infrared (TIR) imagery, a modern no-contact technique, was introduced and integrated with terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and particle tracking velocimetry (PTV) to characterize the failure of a landslide model. The characteristics of the failure initiation, motion, and region of interest, including landslide volume, deformation, velocity, surface temperature changes, and anomalies, were detected using the integrated monitoring system. The laboratory test results indicate that the integrated monitoring system is expected to be useful for characterizing the failure of landslide models. The preliminary results of this study suggest that a change in the relative TIR signal (\u0394TIR) can be a useful index for landslide detection, and a decrease in the average value of the temperature change (      \u0394 T I R  \u00af     ) can be selected as a precursor to landslide failure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20010219","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,3]],"date-time":"2020-01-03T03:28:53Z","timestamp":1578022133000},"page":"219","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Thermal Infrared Imagery Integrated with Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Particle Tracking Velocimetry for Characterization of Landslide Model Failure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8408-2821","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junwei","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Three Gorges Research Center for Geo-Hazards of the Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoxu","family":"Niu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Three Gorges Research Center for Geo-Hazards of the Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0919-4820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Three Gorges Research Center for Geo-Hazards of the Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yankun","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junrong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2161","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-18-2161-2018","article-title":"Global fatal landslide occurrence from 2004 to 2016","volume":"18","author":"Froude","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-9-1921-2009","article-title":"Assessing the capability of terrestrial laser scanning for monitoring slow moving landslides","volume":"9","author":"Prokop","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2013.863808","article-title":"Landslide monitoring using multitemporal terrestrial laser scanning for ground displacement analysis","volume":"6","author":"Barbarella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0589-y","article-title":"Using wavelet tools to analyse seasonal variations from InSAR time-series data: A case study of the Huangtupo landslide","volume":"13","author":"Tomas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2017.03.026","article-title":"Using advanced InSAR techniques to monitor landslide deformations induced by tunneling in the Northern Apennines, Italy","volume":"226","author":"Bayer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0759-6","article-title":"Monitoring the Poto\u0161ka planina landslide (NW Slovenia) using UAV photogrammetry and tachymetric measurements","volume":"14","author":"Peternel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12518-015-0165-0","article-title":"UAV monitoring and documentation of a large landslide","volume":"8","author":"Lindner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70201736","article-title":"Time Series Analysis of Landslide Dynamics Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)","volume":"7","author":"Turner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frodella, W., Gigli, G., Morelli, S., Lombardi, L., and Casagli, N. (2017). Landslide Mapping and Characterization through Infrared Thermography (IRT): Suggestions for a Methodological Approach from Some Case Studies. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121281"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.11.045","article-title":"Potentialities and limitations of thermography to assess landslide risk","volume":"116","author":"Morello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2014.08.025","article-title":"Distributed acquisition, characterization and process analysis of multi-field information in slopes","volume":"182","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manickavasagan, A., and Jayasuriya, H. (2014). Thermal Infrared Imaging. Imaging with Electromagnetic Spectrum: Applications in Food and Agriculture, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-54888-8"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4561","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701250432","article-title":"Detecting unknown coal fires: Synergy of automated coal fire risk area delineation and improved thermal anomaly extraction","volume":"28","author":"Kuenzer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2963","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2509179","article-title":"Review of Thermal Infrared Applications and Requirements for Future High-Resolution Sensors","volume":"54","author":"Sobrino","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Shikada, M., Kusaka, T., Kawata, Y., and Miyakita, K. (1993, January 18\u201321). Extraction of characteristic properties in landslide areas using thematic map data and surface temperature. Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Better Understanding of Earth Environment, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kusaka, T., Shikada, M.-A., and Kawata, Y. (1993, January 31). Inference of landslide areas using spatial features and surface temperature of watersheds. Proceedings of the SPIE International Symposium on Optical Engineering and Photonics Aerospace and Remote Sensing, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.154694"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y.Q., Tang, H.M., Li, C.D., Lu, G.Y., Cai, Y., Zhang, J.R., and Tan, F.L. (2018). Design and testing of a flexible inclinometer probe for model tests of landslide deep displacement measurement. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010224"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2018.08.016","article-title":"Centrifuge model test on the retrogressive landslide subjected to reservoir water level fluctuation","volume":"245","author":"Miao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-017-1126-0","article-title":"Theoretical analysis and model test for rainfall-induced shallow landslides in the red-bed area of Sichuan","volume":"77","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-016-5658-6","article-title":"Model test on rainfall-induced loess\u2013mudstone interfacial landslides in Qingshuihe, China","volume":"75","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-016-0895-1","article-title":"Deformation and failure of the Xiaochatou Landslide under rapid drawdown of the reservoir water level based on centrifuge tests","volume":"76","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K., Zhang, S., Chen, J., Teng, P., Wei, F., and Chen, Q. (2017). A Laboratory Experimental Study: An FBG-PVC Tube Integrated Device for Monitoring the Slip Surface of Landslides. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112486"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Irfan, M., Uchimura, T., and Zhang, K. (2018). Feasibility of Using Elastic Wave Velocity Monitoring for Early Warning of Rainfall-Induced Slope Failure. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18040997"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Cheng, W., Chen, J., Xie, R., and Li, X. (2017). A High Performance Piezoelectric Sensor for Dynamic Force Monitoring of Landslide. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020394"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0693-7","article-title":"Identification of causal factors for the Majiagou landslide using modern data mining methods","volume":"14","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6555","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-014-1710-6","article-title":"A thrust load-caused landslide triggered by excavation of the slope toe: A case study of the Chaancun Landslide in Dalian City, China","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2018.05.030","article-title":"Laboratory testing of a new thermal tracer for infrared-based PTV technique for shallow overland flows","volume":"169","author":"Mujtaba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s40333-017-0030-6","article-title":"An improved particle tracking velocimetry (PTV) technique to evaluate the velocity field of saltating particles","volume":"9","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Arid Land"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1007\/s12650-019-00571-8","article-title":"Particle tracking velocimetry and flame front detection techniques on commercial aircraft debris striking events","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2018.09.009","article-title":"PTV-Stream: A simplified particle tracking velocimetry framework for stream surface flow monitoring","volume":"172","author":"Tauro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2017.07.009","article-title":"Rectification of Image Velocity Results (RIVeR): A simple and user-friendly toolbox for large scale water surface Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV)","volume":"109","author":"Patalano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s00271-014-0440-6","article-title":"A particle tracking velocimetry technique for drop characterization in agricultural sprinklers","volume":"32","author":"Robles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Irrig. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000067","article-title":"Coupled PIV and PTV Measurements of Particle Velocities and Trajectories for Surface Waves Following a Steady Current","volume":"137","author":"Umeyama","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2010.147","article-title":"SIFT Flow: Dense Correspondence across Scenes and Its Applications","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/1\/219\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:46:57Z","timestamp":1760190417000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/1\/219"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s20010219"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20010219","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,30]]}}}