{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,10]],"date-time":"2026-07-10T00:00:51Z","timestamp":1783641651356,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,7]],"date-time":"2020-01-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1578355200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006705","name":"National Taipei University of Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NTUT-BIT-105-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NTUT-BIT-105-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006705","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sports robots have become a popular research topic in recent years. For table-tennis robots, ball tracking and trajectory prediction are the most important technologies. Several methods were developed in previous research efforts, and they can be divided into two categories: physical models and machine learning. The former use algorithms that consider gravity, air resistance, the Magnus effect, and elastic collision. However, estimating these external forces require high sampling frequencies that can only be achieved with high-efficiency imaging equipment. This study thus employed machine learning to learn the flight trajectories of ping-pong balls, which consist of two parabolic trajectories: one beginning at the serving point and ending at the landing point on the table, and the other beginning at the landing point and ending at the striking point of the robot. We established two artificial neural networks to learn these two trajectories. We conducted a simulation experiment using 200 real-world trajectories as training data. The mean errors of the proposed dual-network method and a single-network model were 39.6 mm and 42.9 mm, respectively. The results indicate that the prediction performance of the proposed dual-network method is better than that of the single-network approach. We also used the physical model to generate 330 trajectories for training and the simulation test results show that the trained model achieved a success rate of 97% out of 30 attempts, which was higher than the success rate of 70% obtained by the physical model. A physical experiment presented a mean error and standard deviation of 36.6 mm and 18.8 mm, respectively. The results also show that even without the time stamps, the proposed method maintains its prediction performance with the additional advantages of 15% fewer parameters in the overall network and 54% shorter training time.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020333","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,8]],"date-time":"2020-01-08T03:59:57Z","timestamp":1578455997000},"page":"333","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Ball Tracking and Trajectory Prediction for Table-Tennis Robots"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6195-3353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsien-I","family":"Lin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Automation Technology, National Taipei University of Technology, No. 1, Sec. 3, Zhongxiao E. Rd., Taipei 10608, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhangguo","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi-Chen","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Institute of Automation Technology, National Taipei University of Technology, No. 1, Sec. 3, Zhongxiao E. Rd., Taipei 10608, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2016.11.005","article-title":"Design and implementation of an omnidirectional vision system for robot perception","volume":"41","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2018.03.012","article-title":"Online optimal trajectory generation for robot table tennis","volume":"105","author":"Maeda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1631\/jzus.C0910528","article-title":"A tracking and predicting scheme for ping pong robot","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. 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