{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:52:40Z","timestamp":1760403160257,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]],"date-time":"2020-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579046400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the National Key Research and Development Plan of China","award":["2016YFB0502101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFB0502101"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>One\u2019s position has become an important piece of information for our everyday lives in a smart city. Currently, a position can be obtained easily using smartphones that is equipped with low-cost Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) chipsets with accuracy varying from 5 m to 10 m. Differential GNSS (DGNSS) is an efficient technology that removes the majority of GNSS errors with the aid of reference stations installed at known locations. The sub-meter accuracy can be achieved when applying the DGNSS technology on the advanced receivers. In 2016, Android has opened the accesses of raw GNSS measurements to developers. However, most of the mid and low-end smartphones only provide the data using the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) protocol. They do not provide the raw measurements, and thus do not support the DGNSS operation either. We proposed a DGNSS infrastructure that correct the standalone GNSS position of smartphones using the corrections from the reference station. In the infrastructure, the position correction is generated considering the GNSS satellite IDs that contribute to the standalone solution in smartphones, and the position obtained is equivalent to the solution of using the range-domain correction directly. To serve a large number of smartphone users, a Client\/Server architecture is developed to cope with a mass of DGNSS positioning requests efficiently. The comparison of the proposed infrastructure against the ground truth, for all field tests in open areas, showed that the infrastructure achieves the horizontal positioning accuracy better than 2 m. The improvement in accuracy can reach more than 50% for the test in the afternoon. The infrastructure brings benefits to applications that require more accuracy without requiring any hardware modifications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020487","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]],"date-time":"2020-01-17T04:14:41Z","timestamp":1579234481000},"page":"487","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["A New DGNSS Positioning Infrastructure for Android Smartphones"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Duojie","family":"Weng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong M1504, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1212-0715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xingli","family":"Gan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"},{"name":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong M1504, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shengyue","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Science and technology of Surveying and Mapping, China University of\r\nPetroleum (East China), Qingdao 266000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yangwei","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Land Surveying and Geo-Informatics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong M1504, China"},{"name":"Department of Science and technology of Surveying and Mapping, China University of\r\nPetroleum (East China), Qingdao 266000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Xu, G. (2007). GPS Observables. GPS, Theory, Algorithms and Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Q., Xu, L., and Chen, X. (2018). A CORS-Based Differential Correction Approach for AIS Mobile Stations. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113626"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"65","article-title":"Application of the DGPS method for the precise positioning of aircraft in air transport","volume":"98","author":"Krasuski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. J. Sil. Univ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1109\/35.7645","article-title":"Differential operation of the global positioning system","volume":"26","author":"Enge","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2012.2187641","article-title":"Real-time computer vision\/DGPS-aided inertial navigation system for lane-level vehicle navigation","volume":"13","author":"Vu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2011.2178832","article-title":"Collaborative vision-integrated pseudorange error removal: Team-estimated differential GNSS corrections with no stationary reference receiver","volume":"13","author":"Rife","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2013.2266339","article-title":"Cooperative positioning for vehicular networks: Facts and future","volume":"14","author":"Alam","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3104","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2015.2432122","article-title":"GPS error correction with pseudorange evaluation using three-dimensional maps","volume":"16","author":"Miura","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Kaplan, E., and Hegarty, C. (2005). Differential GPS. Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-014-0372-x","article-title":"Assessing and mitigating the effects of the ionospheric variability on DGPS","volume":"19","author":"Weng","year":"2015","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7901","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2015.2478415","article-title":"Trajectory estimations using smartphones","volume":"62","author":"Barrios","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"GSMA (2020, January 15). Mobile Economy 2015. Available online: http:\/\/www.gsma.com\/mobileeconomy\/global\/2015\/."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"GPS World (2020, January 15). Google to Provide Raw GNSS Measurements. Available online: http:\/\/gpsworld.com\/google-to-provide-raw-gnss-measurements\/."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Q., Sun, M., Zhou, C., and Zhang, P. (2019). Precise Point Positioning Using Dual-Frequency GNSS Observations on Smartphone. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19092189"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, Z., Nie, P., Tao, L., Sun, J., and Zhu, B. (2019). RTK with the Assistance of an IMU-Based Pedestrian Navigation Algorithm for Smartphones. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143228"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Smart Phone as a Surveying Tool","volume":"6626","author":"Ogundipe","year":"2013","journal-title":"TS03C Position. Navig. Today Tomorrow"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463312000471","article-title":"DGPS enhancement to GPS NMEA output data: DGPS by correction projection to position-domain","volume":"66","author":"Park","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6667","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-014-1699-x","article-title":"M-DGPS: Mobile devices supported differential global positioning system algorithm","volume":"8","author":"Ji","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, D., Kee, C., Seo, J., and Park, B. (2016). Position Accuracy Improvement by Implementing the DGNSS-CP Algorithm in Smartphones. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060910"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1987.310829","article-title":"Ionospheric Time-Delay Algorithms for Single-Frequency GPS Users","volume":"3","author":"Klobuchar","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/2\/487\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:26:29Z","timestamp":1760365589000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/2\/487"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]]},"references-count":20,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s20020487"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20020487","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]]}}}