{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T18:43:03Z","timestamp":1780512183214,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]],"date-time":"2020-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579651200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019R1G1A1995"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019R1G1A1995"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We present the development of a 6 \u00d7 6 piezoelectric array sensor for measuring elasticity and force. The proposed sensor employs an impedance measurement technique, sensing the acoustic load impedance of a target by measuring the electrical impedance shift of face-shear mode PMN\u2013PT (lead magnesium niobate\u2013lead titanate) single crystal elements. Among various modes of PMN\u2013PT single crystals, the face-shear mode was selected due to its especially high sensitivity to acoustic loads. To verify the elasticity sensing performance, gelatin samples with different elastic moduli were prepared and tested. For the force measurement test, different magnitudes of force were loaded to the sensing layer whose acoustic impedance was varied with applied forces. From the experimental results, the fabricated sensor showed an elastic stiffness sensitivity of 23.52 Ohm\/MPa with a resolution of 4.25 kPa and contact force sensitivity of 19.27 Ohm\/N with a resolution of 5.19 mN. In addition, the mapping experiment of elasticity and force using the sensor array was successfully demonstrated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]],"date-time":"2020-01-22T11:17:57Z","timestamp":1579691877000},"page":"604","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A Face-Shear Mode Piezoelectric Array Sensor for Elasticity and Force Measurement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Kyungrim","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taeyang","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and System Engineering, Korea Military Academy, Seoul 01805, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2072-3922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinwook","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoning","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.3","article-title":"Human tactile perception as a standard for artificial tactile sensing\u2014A review","volume":"1","author":"Dargahi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Robot. Comp."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1109\/84.870059","article-title":"A micromachined piezoelectric tactile sensor for an endoscopic grasper-theory, fabrication and experiments","volume":"9","author":"Dargahi","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1108\/01439910510593965","article-title":"Advances in tactile sensors design\/manufacturing and its impact on robotics applications\u2014A review","volume":"32","author":"Dargahi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ind. Robot"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.917481","article-title":"State-of-the-art in force and tactile sensing for minimally invasive surgery","volume":"8","author":"Puangmali","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1672","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-007-9688-8","article-title":"A novel method for artery detection in laparoscopic surgery","volume":"22","author":"Akbari","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surg. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2009.2025586","article-title":"MEMS endoscopic tactile sensor: Toward in-situ and in-vivo tissue softness characterization","volume":"9","author":"Sokhanvar","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2007.912650","article-title":"Contact-based stiffness sensing of human eye","volume":"55","author":"Kurita","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-010-9357-z","article-title":"Alteration in the mechanical properties of human ovum zona pellucida following fertilization: Experimental and analytical studies","volume":"51","author":"Khalilian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/03091900802491188","article-title":"Tactile resonance sensors in medicine","volume":"33","author":"Lindahl","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-012-9682-5","article-title":"Development of tactile eye stiffness sensor","volume":"53","author":"Enikov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Missinne, J., and Hoe, B. (2010). Artificial skin based on flexible optical tactile sensors. SPIE Newsroom, 1\u20133.","DOI":"10.1117\/2.1201001.002582"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Maggiali, M., Cannata, G., Maiolino, P., Metta, G., Randazzo, M., and Sandini, G. (2008, January 23\u201325). Embedded distributed capacitive tactile sensor. Proceedings of the 11th Mechatronics Forum Biennial International Conference, Limerick, Ireland."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4121","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2279056","article-title":"Directions toward effective utilization of tactile skin: A review","volume":"13","author":"Dahiya","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6pfer, M., Sch\u00fcrmann, C., Pardowitz, M., and Ritter, H. (2010, January 7\u20139). Using a piezo-resistive tactile sensor for detection of incipient slippage. ISR 2010 (41st International Symposium on Robotics) and ROBOTIK 2010 (6th German Conference on Robotics), Munich, Germany."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.01.054","article-title":"Active muscle stiffness sensor based on piezoelectric resonance for muscle contraction estimation","volume":"194","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kasuya, M., Seki, M., Kawamura, K., Kobayashi, Y., Fujie, M.G., and Yokoi, H. (2013, January 17\u201321). Robust grip force estimation under electric feedback using muscle stiffness and electromyography for powered prosthetic hand. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Madison, WI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2013.6630561"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.921727","article-title":"Normal and shear force measurement using a flexible polymer tactile sensor with embedded multiple capacitors","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2007.04.013","article-title":"Modeling and testing of an endoscopic piezoelectric-based tactile sensor","volume":"17","author":"Dargahi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2004.833152","article-title":"A tactile sensor sheet using pressure conductive rubber with electrical-wires stitched method","volume":"4","author":"Shimojo","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(92)87002-X","article-title":"New tactile sensor like the human hand and its applications","volume":"35","author":"Omata","year":"1992","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(96)80085-9","article-title":"A silicon force sensor for robotics and medicine","volume":"50","author":"Beebe","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2009.2013612","article-title":"Semiconductor piezoresistance for microsystems","volume":"97","author":"Barlian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2012.02.051","article-title":"A review of tactile sensing technologies with applications in biomedical engineering","volume":"179","author":"Tiwana","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7116","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NR00004B","article-title":"Lightweight, compressible and electrically conductive polyurethane sponges coated with synergistic multiwalled carbon nanotubes and graphene for piezoresistive sensors","volume":"10","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6692","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201303041","article-title":"A flexible and highly pressure-sensitive graphene\u2013polyurethane sponge based on fractured microstructure design","volume":"25","author":"Yao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Hakozaki, M., and Shinoda, H. (2002, January 11\u201315). Digital tactile sensing elements communicating through conductive skin layers. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No. 02CH37292), Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2009.12.031","article-title":"Capacitive tactile sensor array for touch screen application","volume":"165","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beeby, S., Ensel, G., White, N.M., and Kraft, M. (2004). MEMS Mechanical Sensors, Artech House.","DOI":"10.1108\/sr.2004.24.3.319.2"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2005.09.009","article-title":"Electroactive polymeric sensors in hand prostheses: Bending response of an ionic polymer metal composite","volume":"28","author":"Biddiss","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.3390\/bios4040422","article-title":"Microfabricated tactile sensors for biomedical applications: A review","volume":"4","author":"Saccomandi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.2008559","article-title":"PVDF-based microfabricated tactile sensor for minimally invasive surgery","volume":"18","author":"Qasaimeh","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(92)80089-L","article-title":"A capacitive tactile sensor for shear and normal force measurements","volume":"31","author":"Zhu","year":"1992","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2009.12.002","article-title":"Novel MEMS stiffness sensor for force and elasticity measurements","volume":"158","author":"Peng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(02)00336-9","article-title":"Active tactile sensor for detecting contact force and hardness of an object","volume":"103","author":"Shikida","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2014.10.002","article-title":"Advantages and challenges of relaxor-PbTiO3 ferroelectric crystals for electroacoustic transducers\u2014A review","volume":"68","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.3390\/cryst4030351","article-title":"Relaxor-PT single crystal piezoelectric sensors","volume":"4","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crystals"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253501","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4729766","article-title":"Surface load induced electrical impedance shift in relaxor-PbTiO3 crystal piezoelectric resonators","volume":"100","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2548","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2012.2488","article-title":"Surface acoustic load sensing using a face-shear PIN-PMN-PT single-crystal resonator","volume":"59","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2477340","article-title":"A novel ultrasound technique for non-invasive assessment of cell differentiation","volume":"16","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"052902","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4975587","article-title":"Piezoelectric d 36 in-plane shear-mode of lead-free BZT-BCT single crystals for torsion actuation","volume":"110","author":"Berik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2006.03.036","article-title":"Dielectric and piezoelectric properties of [0 0 1] and [0 1 1]-poled relaxor ferroelectric PZN-PT and PMN-PT single crystals","volume":"133","author":"Rajan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1557\/JMR.1997.0030","article-title":"Change of the weak-field properties of Pb (ZrTi) O3 piezoceramics with compressive uniaxial stresses and its links to the effect of dopants on the stability of the polarizations in the materials","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031301","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3679521","article-title":"High performance ferroelectric relaxor-PbTiO3 single crystals: Status and perspective","volume":"111","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, J., Hackenberger, W., Zhang, S., and Shrout, T.R. (2008, January 2\u20135). Elastic, piezoelectric and dielectric properties of PIN-PMN-PT crystals grown by Bridgman method. Proceedings of the Ultrasonics Symposium, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2008.0064"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Emelianov, S., Erkamp, R., Lubinski, M., Skovoroda, A., and O\u2019Donnell, M. (1998, January 5\u20138). Non-linear tissue elasticity: Adaptive elasticity imaging for large deformations. Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium (Cat. No. 98CH36102), Sendai, Japan."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Kinsler, L.E., Kinsler, L.E., Frey, A.R., Coppens, A.B., and Sanders, J.V. (2000). Fundamentals of Acoustics, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2006.886274","article-title":"Elastic model of deformable fingertip for soft-fingered manipulation","volume":"22","author":"Inoue","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1044","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.895973","article-title":"Piezoelectric vibration-type tactile sensor using elasticity and viscosity change of structure","volume":"7","author":"Motoo","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Marc, M., and Volume, A. (2010). Theory and User Information, MSC Corporation."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Treloar, L.R.G. (1975). The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.1972.0026","article-title":"Large deformation isotropic elasticity\u2013on the correlation of theory and experiment for incompressible rubberlike solids","volume":"326","author":"Ogden","year":"1972","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A Math. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1712836","article-title":"A theory of large elastic deformation","volume":"11","author":"Mooney","year":"1940","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-2906.2005.00974.x","article-title":"Applicability of the modified Mooney-Rivlin equation on rheological analysis of fish-meat gel","volume":"71","author":"Kong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2010.07.005","article-title":"Comparison of the surface wave method and the indentation method for measuring the elasticity of gelatin phantoms of different concentrations","volume":"51","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055801","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/21\/5\/055801","article-title":"Hand-held resonance sensor for tissue stiffness measurements\u2014A theoretical and experimental analysis","volume":"21","author":"Jalkanen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2010.0520","article-title":"Indentation versus tensile measurements of Young\u2019s modulus for soft biological tissues","volume":"17","author":"McKee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part B Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2820","DOI":"10.1557\/JMR.2005.0354","article-title":"Nanoindentation of polydimethylsiloxane elastomers: Effect of crosslinking, work of adhesion, and fluid environment on elastic modulus","volume":"20","author":"Carrillo","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/604\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:05:36Z","timestamp":1760364336000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/604"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20030604"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20030604","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]]}}}