{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T09:14:30Z","timestamp":1777972470596,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]],"date-time":"2020-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579651200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE)","award":["DE-AC36-08GO28308"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DE-AC36-08GO28308"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Structural health monitoring of fiber-reinforced composite-based joints for automotive applications during their manufacturing and on-demand assessment for its durability in working environments is critically needed. High-definition fiber-optic sensing is an effective method to measure internal strain\/stress development using minimally invasive continuous sensors. The sensing fiber diameters are in the same order of magnitude when compared to reinforcement (glass, basalt, or carbon fibers) used in polymer composites. They also offer a unique ability to monitor the evolution of residual stresses after repeated thermal exposure with varying temperatures for automotive components\/joints during painting using an electrophoretic painting process. In this paper, a high-definition fiber-optic sensor utilizing Rayleigh scattering is embedded within an adhesive joint between a carbon fiber-reinforced thermoset composite panel and an aluminum panel to measure spatially resolved strain development, residual strain, and thermal expansion properties during the electrophoretic paint process-simulated conditions. The strain measured by the continuous fiber-optic sensor was compared with an alternate technique using thermal digital image correlation. The fiber-optic sensor was able to identify the spatial variation of residual strains for a discontinuous carbon fiber-reinforced composite with varying local fiber orientations and resin content.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030614","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]],"date-time":"2020-01-22T11:17:57Z","timestamp":1579691877000},"page":"614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Smart Adhesive Joint with High-Definition Fiber-Optic Sensing for Automotive Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Stephen","family":"Young","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tickle College of Engineering, the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}]},{"given":"Dayakar","family":"Penumadu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tickle College of Engineering, the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}]},{"given":"Darren","family":"Foster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tickle College of Engineering, the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}]},{"given":"Hannah","family":"Maeser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tickle College of Engineering, the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}]},{"given":"Bharati","family":"Balijepalli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Dow Chemical Company, Midlands, MI 48667, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8435-9325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason","family":"Reese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Dow Chemical Company, Midlands, MI 48667, USA"}]},{"given":"Dave","family":"Bank","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Dow Chemical Company, Midlands, MI 48667, USA"}]},{"given":"Jeff","family":"Dahl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ford Research &amp; Innovation Center, Dearborn, MI 48124, USA"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Blanchard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ford Research &amp; Innovation Center, Dearborn, MI 48124, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2016.10.051","article-title":"Lightweight sheet molding compound (SMC) composites containing cellulose nanocrystals","volume":"160","author":"Asadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2010.05.005","article-title":"Sheet moulding compound (SMC) from carbon fibre recyclate","volume":"41","author":"Palmer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2015.01.014","article-title":"Debonding on command of adhesive joints for the automotive industry","volume":"59","author":"Banea","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2015.12.020","article-title":"Process monitoring of glass reinforced polypropylene laminates using fiber Bragg gratings","volume":"123","author":"Mulle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1163\/156856106779024436","article-title":"Stress-free temperature in a mixed-adhesive joint","volume":"20","author":"Adams","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2016.07.006","article-title":"Moisture contamination detection in adhesive bond using embedded FBG sensors","volume":"84","author":"Mieloszyk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075006","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/23\/7\/075006","article-title":"Disbond monitoring in adhesive joints using shear stress optical fiber sensors","volume":"23","author":"Sulejmani","year":"2014","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Matthews, F.L., and Rawlings, R.D. (2006). Composite Materials: Engineering and Science, Woodhead Publishing."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/S0266-3538(98)00041-4","article-title":"Effects of surface geometry of composites on thermal stress distribution: A numerical study","volume":"59","author":"Abedian","year":"1999","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2012.04.021","article-title":"In situ monitoring of the strain evolution and curing reaction of composite laminates to reduce the thermal residual stress using FBG sensor and dielectrometry","volume":"44","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2015.07.021","article-title":"An active infrared thermography method for fiber orientation assessment of fiber-reinforced composite materials","volume":"72","author":"Fernandes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2015.09.023","article-title":"Distributed internal strain measurement during composite manufacturing using optical fibre sensors","volume":"120","author":"Gresil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2011.02.006","article-title":"Life cycle monitoring of large-scale CFRP VARTM structure by fiber-optic-based distributed sensing","volume":"42","author":"Minakuchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrias, A., Casas, J.R., and Villalba, S. (2018). Embedded Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors in Reinforced Concrete Structures-A Case Study. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18040980"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, K., Cui, J., Dang, H., Sun, X., Jiang, D., Jin, Y., Niu, Y., and Zhang, X. (2019). Investigation of a Signal Demodulation Method based on Wavelet Transformation for OFDR to Enhance Its Distributed Sensing Performance. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19132850"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.3390\/s120201898","article-title":"Fiber Bragg grating sensors for harsh environments","volume":"12","author":"Mihailov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.2174\/1874328501307010104","article-title":"Distributed optical fiber sensing based on Rayleigh scattering","volume":"7","author":"Palmieri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Open Opt. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-017-0339-2","article-title":"Residual Strains using Integrated Continuous Fiber Optic Sensing in Thermoplastic Composites and Structural Health Monitoring","volume":"58","author":"Arhant","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, K., Cui, J., Jin, Y., Sun, X., Jiang, D., Dang, H., Niu, Y., and Tan, J. (2018). Enhancement of the Performance and Data Processing Rate of an Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometer Distributed Sensing System Using A Limited Swept Wavelength Range. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103480"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kant, M., and Penumadu, D. (2018, January 24\u201326). A method for rapid determination of fiber orientation in refinforced composites at lab and component scale. Proceedings of the American Society for Composites\u2014Thirty-third Technical Conference, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.12783\/asc33\/25984"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Penumadu, D., and Kant, M. (2018). Invention disclosure: Technique: Fiber and bundle orientations and mechanical properties of fiber reinforced composites using thermal digital image correlation (TDIC). Univ. Tenn. Res. Found., UTRF 18162-03."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"LUNA (2018). User\u2019s Guide ODiSI 6100, LUNA."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"LUNA (2014). User\u2019s Guide ODiSI-B, LUNA."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Froggatt, M.E., and Moore, J.P. (2003). Apparatus and Method for Measuring Strain in Optical Fibers Using Rayleigh Scatter. (6,545,760), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Peters, K.J., Kreger, S.T., Gifford, D.K., Froggatt, M.E., Sang, A.K., Duncan, R.G., Wolfe, M.S., and Soller, B.J. (2007). High-resolution extended distance distributed fiber-optic sensing using rayleigh backscatter. Sensor Systems and Networks: Phenomena, Technology, and Applications for NDE and Health Monitoring 2007, Proceedings of SPIE."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.13.000666","article-title":"High resolution optical frequency domain reflectometry for characterization of components and assemblies","volume":"13","author":"Soller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrias, A., Casas, J.R., and Villalba, S. (2016). A Review of Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050748"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-013-0201-7","article-title":"Review: Optical fiber sensors for civil engineering applications","volume":"48","author":"Leung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Glaesemann, G.S. (2017). Optical Fiber Mechanical Reliability: Review of Research at Corning\u2019s Optical Strength Laboratory White Paper WP8002, ISO. ISO 9001 Registered."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2016.08.009","article-title":"A mesoscale study of thermal expansion behaviors of epoxy resin and carbon fiber\/epoxy unidirectional composites based on periodic temperature and displacement boundary conditions","volume":"55","author":"Dong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1305.2006.00271.x","article-title":"Charasterisation of thermal expansion coefficient of anisotropic materials by electronic speckle pattern interferometry","volume":"42","author":"Dudescu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2016.03.001","article-title":"Optical sensor-based measurements of thermal expansion coefficient in additive manufacturing","volume":"51","author":"Economidou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2008.11.004","article-title":"Measurement of coefficient of thermal expansion of films using digital image correlation method","volume":"28","author":"Bing","year":"2009","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02410384","article-title":"Measurement of thermal expansion coefficients of composites using strain gages","volume":"38","year":"1998","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1364\/OME.7.001754","article-title":"Effects of metallic coatings on the thermal sensitivity of optical fiber sensors at cryogenic temperatures","volume":"7","author":"Scurti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Mater. Express"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"LUNA Technologies (2016). High-Definition Fiber Optic Strain Sensors Datasheet, LUNA Technologies."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2016.02.015","article-title":"Fiber optic sensor for hydrostatic pressure and temperature measurement in riverbanks monitoring","volume":"82","author":"Schenato","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.07.098","article-title":"Closed form expression for residual stresses and warpage during cure of composite laminates","volume":"133","author":"Abouhamzeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1007\/s11661-000-0019-0","article-title":"Effect of albite particles on the coefficient of thermal expansion behavior of the Al6061 alloy composites","volume":"31","author":"Sharma","year":"2000","journal-title":"Metall. Mater. Trans. A"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/614\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:44:27Z","timestamp":1760363067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/614"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20030614"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20030614","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,22]]}}}