{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T07:50:15Z","timestamp":1769759415091,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]],"date-time":"2020-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579737600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100012818","name":"Comunidad de Madrid","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["GRANT IND2017\/TIC-7834"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GRANT IND2017\/TIC-7834"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100012818","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The development in Multi-Robot Systems (MRS) has become one of the most exploited fields of research in robotics in recent years. This is due to the robustness and versatility they present to effectively undertake a set of tasks autonomously. One of the essential elements for several vehicles, in this case, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), to perform tasks autonomously and cooperatively is trajectory planning, which is necessary to guarantee the safe and collision-free movement of the different vehicles. This document includes the planning of multiple trajectories for a swarm of UAVs based on 3D Probabilistic Roadmaps (PRM). This swarm is capable of reaching different locations of interest in different cases (labeled and unlabeled), supporting of an Emergency Response Team (ERT) in emergencies in urban environments. In addition, an architecture based on Robot Operating System (ROS) is presented to allow the simulation and integration of the methods developed in a UAV swarm. This architecture allows the communications with the MavLink protocol and control via the Pixhawk autopilot, for a quick and easy implementation in real UAVs. The proposed method was validated by experiments simulating building emergences. Finally, the obtained results show that methods based on probability roadmaps create effective solutions in terms of calculation time in the case of scalable systems in different situations along with their integration into a versatile framework such as ROS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030642","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]],"date-time":"2020-01-23T10:36:02Z","timestamp":1579775762000},"page":"642","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["3D Trajectory Planning Method for UAVs Swarm in Building Emergencies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9079-5000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1ngel","family":"Madridano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab (LSI), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Avnd. Universidad 30, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0212-6400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdulla","family":"Al-Kaff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab (LSI), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Avnd. Universidad 30, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3764-5083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Mart\u00edn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab (LSI), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Avnd. Universidad 30, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2618-857X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"and Arturo de la","family":"de la Escalera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Intelligent Systems Lab (LSI), Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Avnd. Universidad 30, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Madrid, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Frederiksen, M.H., Mouridsen, O.A.V., and Knudsen, M.P. (2020, January 22). Drones for Inspection of Infrastructure: Barriers, Opportunities and Successful Uses. Available online: https:\/\/findresearcher.sdu.dk:8443\/ws\/files\/153908491\/Final_Infrastructure_Memo_29.05.2019.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Besada, J., Bergesio, L., Campa\u00f1a, I., Vaquero-Melchor, D., L\u00f3pez-Araquistain, J., Bernardos, A., and Casar, J. (2018). Drone mission definition and implementation for automated infrastructure inspection using airborne sensors. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041170"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"D\u00edaz, M.W., and C\u00e1ceres, J.J. (2018, January 7\u20139). A novel application of drones: thermal diagnosis of electrical and telecommunications infrastructure. Proceedings of the IEEE 38th Central America and Panama Convention (CONCAPAN XXXVIII), San Salvador, El Salvador."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Kaff, A., Moreno, F.M., San Jos\u00e9, L.J., Garc\u00eda, F., Mart\u00edn, D., de la Escalera, A., Nieva, A., and Garc\u00e9a, J.L.M. (2017, January 11\u201313). VBII-UAV: Vision-based infrastructure inspection-UAV. Proceedings of the World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, Madeira, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-56538-5_24"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1700454","article-title":"Energy neutral internet of drones","volume":"56","author":"Long","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarkar, S., Totaro, M.W., and Elgazzar, K. (2019, January 28\u201330). Intelligent drone-based surveillance: application to parking lot monitoring and detection. Proceedings of the Unmanned Systems Technology XXI, Anaheim, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2518320"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2017.09.025","article-title":"The potential use of unmanned aircraft systems (drones) in mountain search and rescue operations","volume":"36","author":"Karaca","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Kaff, A., Moreno, F.M., de la Escalera, A., and Armingol, J.M. (2017, January 11\u201313). Intelligent vehicle for search, rescue and transportation purposes. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Safety, Security and Rescue Robotics (SSRR), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/SSRR.2017.8088148"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quan, A., Herrmann, C., and Soliman, H. (2019, January 29\u201331). Project Vulture: A Prototype for Using Drones in Search and Rescue Operations. Proceedings of the International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems (DCOSS), Santorini Island, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/DCOSS.2019.00113"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1186\/s13049-016-0313-5","article-title":"Unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in out-of-hospital-cardiac-arrest","volume":"24","author":"Claesson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2019.11.003","article-title":"The Multiple Flying Sidekicks Traveling Salesman Problem: Parcel Delivery with Multiple Drones","volume":"110","author":"Murray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-009-9383-1","article-title":"A survey of motion planning algorithms from the perspective of autonomous UAV guidance","volume":"57","author":"Goerzen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Russell, S.J., and Norvig, P. (2016). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Pearson Education Limited."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.5772\/57313","article-title":"A survey and analysis of multi-robot coordination","volume":"10","author":"Yan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madridano, \u00c1., Al-Kaff, A., G\u00f3mez, D.M., and de la Escalera, A. (2019, January 4\u20136). Multi-Path Planning Method for UAVs Swarm Purposes. In Proceeding of the IEEE International Conference of Vehicular Electronics and Safety (ICVES), Cairo, Egypt.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICVES.2019.8906381"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korkmaz, M., and Durdu, A. (2018, January 20\u201324). Comparison of optimal path planning algorithms. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Advanced Trends in Radioelecrtronics, Telecommunications and Computer Engineering (TCSET), Slavske, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSET.2018.8336197"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Yang, L., Qi, J., Xiao, J., and Yong, X. (July, January 29). A literature review of UAV 3D path planning. Proceedings of the 11th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation, Shenyang, China."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dias, A., Fernandes, T., Almeida, J., Martins, A., and Silva, E. (2018). 3D PATH PLANNING METHODS FOR UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES IN SEARCH AND RESCUE SCENARIOS. Int. J. Artif. Intell. Tools, 26.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789813231047_0028"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnucene.2018.08.006","article-title":"Probabilistic roadmap method for path-planning in radioactive environment of nuclear facilities","volume":"109","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Nucl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.07.052","article-title":"UAV-Robot Relationship for Coordination of Robots on a Collision Free Path","volume":"133","author":"Upadhyay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/s11633-013-0750-9","article-title":"Path planning in complex 3D environments using a probabilistic roadmap method","volume":"10","author":"Yan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Autom. Comput."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samaniego, F., Sanchis, J., Garc\u00eda-Nieto, S., and Simarro, R. (2017, January 16\u201320). UAV motion planning and obstacle avoidance based on adaptive 3D cell decomposition: Continuous space vs. discrete space. Proceedings of the IEEE Second Ecuador Technical Chapters Meeting (ETCM), Salinas, Ecuador.","DOI":"10.1109\/ETCM.2017.8247533"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guastella, D.C., Cavallaro, N.D., Melita, C.D., Savasta, M., and Muscato, G. (2018, January 21\u201323). 3D path planning for UAV swarm missions. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Mechatronics Systems and Control Engineering, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1145\/3185066.3185069"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falomir, E., Chaumette, S., and Guerrini, G. (2019, January 11\u201314). A 3D Mobility Model for Autonomous Swarms of Collaborative UAVs. In Proceeding of the International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUAS.2019.8798199"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capitan, J., Mantecon, D., Soriano, P., and Ollero, A. (2007, January 27\u201329). Autonomous perception techniques for urban and industrial fire scenarios. In Proceeding of the IEEE International Workshop on Safety, Security and Rescue Robotics, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/SSRR.2007.4381262"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3166\/ejc.15.441-448","article-title":"Multi uav coordination for tracking the dispersion of a contaminant cloud in an urban region","volume":"15","author":"Sinha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Control"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allauddin, M.S., Kiran, G.S., Kiran, G.R., Srinivas, G., Mouli, G.U.R., and Prasad, P.V. (August, January 28). Development of a Surveillance System for Forest Fire Detection and Monitoring using Drones. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2019\u20142019 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2019.8900436"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Couceiro, M.S., Portugal, D., Ferreira, J.F., and Rocha, R.P. (2019, January 14\u201316). SEMFIRE: Towards a new generation of forestry maintenance multi-robot systems. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE\/SICE International Symposium on System Integration (SII), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/SII.2019.8700403"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kristensen, A.S., Mehmood, S., Ahmed, S., Ahsan, D., and Zamora, R. (2018, January 17\u201321). Rescue Emergency Drone (Red) network for assessment of traffic accidents in Denmark. Proceedings of the 28th International European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL), Trondheim, Norway.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781351174664-236"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranjan, A., Panigrahi, B., Rath, H.K., Misra, P., Simha, A., and Sahu, H. (2018, January 25\u201328). A Study on Pathloss Model for UAV Based Urban Disaster and Emergency Communication Systems. Proceedings of the Twenty Fourth National Conference on Communications (NCC), Hyderabad, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/NCC.2018.8600260"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rokhsaritalemi, S., Sadeghi-Niaraki, A., and Choi, S.M. (2018, January 17\u201319). Drone Trajectory Planning Based on Geographic Information System for 3D Urban Modeling. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information and Communication Technology Convergence (ICTC), Jeju, South Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTC.2018.8539556"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meier, L., Tanskanen, P., Fraundorfer, F., and Pollefeys, M. (2011, January 9\u201313). Pixhawk: A system for autonomous flight using onboard computer vision. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2011.5980229"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-012-9321-0","article-title":"OctoMap: An Efficient Probabilistic 3D Mapping Framework Based on Octrees","volume":"34","author":"Hornung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Auton. Robot"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Meyer, J. (2020, January 22). Hector Quadrotor ROS Package Website. Available online: http:\/\/wiki.ros.org\/hector_quadrotor."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Quigley, M., Conley, K., Gerkey, B., Faust, J., Foote, T., Leibs, J., Wheeler, R., and Ng, A.Y. (2009, January 17). ROS: An open-source Robot Operating System. Proceedings of the ICRA Workshop on Open Source Software, Kobe, Japan."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2003.1196006","article-title":"Simplification and Repair of Polygonal Models Using Volumetric Techniques","volume":"9","author":"Nooruddin","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Min, P. (2020, January 22). binvox. Available online: http:\/\/www.patrickmin.com\/binvox."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaValle, S.M. (2006). Planning Algorithms, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511546877"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1002\/nav.3800020109","article-title":"The Hungarian method for the assignment problem","volume":"2","author":"Kuhn","year":"1955","journal-title":"Naval Res. Logist. Q."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2017.2693377","article-title":"A distributed version of the hungarian method for multirobot assignment","volume":"33","author":"Chopra","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/642\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:20:30Z","timestamp":1760361630000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/642"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20030642"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20030642","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]]}}}