{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T19:28:05Z","timestamp":1780082885285,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]],"date-time":"2020-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579737600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/P004024\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P004024\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/M508147\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/M508147\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/L002531\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/L002531\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>LoRaWAN is a Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technology designed for Internet of Things (IoT) deployments; this paper presents experiences from deploying a city-scale LoRaWAN network across Southampton, UK. This network was deployed to support an installation of air quality monitors and to explore the capabilities of LoRaWAN. This deployment uses a mixture of commercial off-the-shelf gateways and custom gateways. These gateway locations were chosen based on network access, site permission and accessibility, and are not necessarily the best locations theoretically. Over 135,000 messages have been transmitted by the twenty devices analysed. Over the course of the complete deployment,     72.4    % of the messages were successfully received by the data server. Of the messages that were received, 99% were received within 10    s    of transmission. We conclude that LoRaWAN is an applicable communication technology for city-scale air quality monitoring and other smart city applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030648","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]],"date-time":"2020-01-23T10:36:02Z","timestamp":1579775762000},"page":"648","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":133,"title":["LoRaWAN for Smart City IoT Deployments: A Long Term Evaluation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6058-8270","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip J.","family":"Basford","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7QF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3337-4650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florentin M. J.","family":"Bulot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7QF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1562-5137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mihaela","family":"Apetroaie-Cristea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7QF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon J.","family":"Cox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7QF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3864-7072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steven J.","family":"Ossont","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 7QF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bertolaud, A., Delclef, J., Delport, V., Duffy, P., Dyduch, F., Eirich, T., Ferreira, L., Gharout, S., Hersent, O., and Kasttet, A. (2017). LoRaWAN 1.1 Specification, LoRa Alliance. Technical Report 1.1."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Zuniga, J.C., and Ponsard, B. (2020, January 21). Sigfox System Description. Available online: https:\/\/www.ietf.org\/proceedings\/97\/slides\/slides-97-lpwan-25-sigfox-system-description-00.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ratasuk, R., Vejlgaard, B., Mangalvedhe, N., and Ghosh, A. (2016, January 3\u20136). NB-IoT system for M2M communication. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference Workshops, WCNCW 2016, Doha, Qatar.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNCW.2016.7552737"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnston, S.J., Basford, P.J., Bulot, F.M.J., Apetroaie-Cristea, M., Cox, S.J., Loxham, M., and Foster, G.L. (2018, January 4\u20137). IoT deployment for city scale air quality monitoring with Low Power Wide Area Networks. Proceedings of the Global IoT Summit 2018, Bilbao, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/GIOTS.2018.8534554"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnston, S., Basford, P., Bulot, F., Apetroaie-Cristea, M., Easton, N., Davenport, C., Foster, G., Loxham, M., Morris, A., and Cox, S. (2019). City Scale Particulate Matter Monitoring Using LoRaWAN Based Air Quality IoT Devices. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010209"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7497","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43716-3","article-title":"Long-term field comparison of multiple low-cost particulate matter sensors in an outdoor urban environment","volume":"9","author":"Bulot","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basford, P.J., Johnston, S., Apetroaie-Cristea, M., Bulot, F., and Cox, S. (2019, January 17\u201321). LoRaWAN for City Scale IoT Deployments. Proceedings of the Global IoT Summit, Aarhus, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/GIOTS.2019.8766359"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"IoT: The era of LPWAN is starting now","volume":"5","author":"Bardyn","year":"2019","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haartsen, J.C. (2003). Bluetooth Radio System. Wiley Encyclopedia of Telecommunications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471219282.eot264"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1109\/35.620533","article-title":"IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks","volume":"35","author":"Crow","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Farahani, S. (2008). ZigBee Wireless Networks and Transceivers, Elsevier Science & Technology Books."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mekki, K., Bajic, E., Chaxel, F., and Meyer, F. (2018). A comparative study of LPWAN technologies for large-scale IoT deployment. ICT Express.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.12.005"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, X., Karampatzakis, E., Doerr, C., and Kuipers, F. (2018, January 17\u201320). Security vulnerabilities in LoRaWAN. Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things Design and Implementation, IoTDI 2018, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IoTDI.2018.00022"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butun, I., Pereira, N., and Gidlund, M. (2018, January 25). Analysis of LoRaWAN v1.1 security. Proceedings of the 4th ACM MobiHoc Workshop on Experiences with the Design and Implementation of Smart Objects\u2014 SMARTOBJECTS \u201918, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3213299.3213304"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guibene, W., Nowack, J., Chalikias, N., Fitzgibbon, K., Kelly, M., and Prendergast, D. (2017, January 19\u201322). Evaluation of LPWAN Technologies for Smart Cities: River Monitoring Use-Case. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference Workshops, WCNCW 2017, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNCW.2017.7919089"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2020, January 13). Sigfox Adds a Basestation and Geolocation. Available online: https:\/\/www.electronicsweekly.com\/news\/products\/sigfox-adds-basestation-geolocation-2018-10\/."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"(2020, January 13). The Things Network. Available online: https:\/\/www.thethingsnetwork.org\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Giezeman, W. (2016). Building a Crowdsourced Global IoT Network Operator. IEEE Int. Things Newsl."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Coppen, R., Banks, A., Briggs, E., Borgendale, K., and Gupta, R. (2020, January 13). MQTT Version 5.0. Available online: https:\/\/docs.oasis-open.org\/mqtt\/mqtt\/v5.0\/os\/mqtt-v5.0-os.html."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2020, January 13). Lacuna Space. Available online: http:\/\/lacuna.space."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2007.905750","article-title":"Survey of wireless indoor positioning techniques and systems","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Manand Cybern. Part C (Appl. Rev.)"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Semtec (2020, January 13). LoRa Cloud. Available online: https:\/\/www.loracloud.com\/."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"LoRa Alliance (2020, January 13). LoRaWAN Geolocation Whitepaper. Available online: https:\/\/docs.wixstatic.com\/ugd\/eccc1a_d43b3b29dfff4ec2b00f349ced4225c4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fargas, B.C., and Petersen, M.N. (2017, January 6\u20139). GPS-free geolocation using LoRa in low-power WANs. Proceedings of the Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS), Geneva, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/GIOTS.2017.8016251"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheong, P.S., Bergs, J., Hawinkel, C., and Famaey, J. (2017, January 14). Comparison of LoRaWAN classes and their power consumption. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Symposium on Communications and Vehicular Technology (SCVT 2017), Leuven, Belgium.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCVT.2017.8240313"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"The Things Industries (2020, January 13). The Things Stack for LoRaWAN V3. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/TheThingsNetwork\/lorawan-stack\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tzortzakis, K., Papafotis, K., and Sotiriadis, P.P. (2017, January 17\u201318). Wireless self powered environmental monitoring system for smart cities based on LoRa. Proceedings of the 4th Panhellenic Conference on Electronics and Telecommunications (PACET 2017), Xanthi, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/PACET.2017.8259970"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2814082","article-title":"Monitoring of Large-Area IoT Sensors Using a LoRa Wireless Mesh Network System: Design and Evaluation","volume":"67","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pasolini, G., Buratti, C., Feltrin, L., Zabini, F., De Castro, C., Verdone, R., and Andrisano, O. (2018). Smart City Pilot Projects Using LoRa and IEEE802.15.4 Technologies. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041118"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Pasolini, G., Buratti, C., Feltrin, L., Zabini, F., Verdone, R., Andrisano, O., and De Castro, C. (2018, January 2\u20134). Smart city pilot project using LoRa. Proceedings of the 24th European Wireless 2018 \u201cWireless Futures in the Era of Network Programmability\u201d, Catania, Italy."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pet\u00e4j\u00e4j\u00e4rvi, J., Mikhaylov, K., Roivainen, A., H\u00e4nninen, T., and Pettissalo, M. (2015, January 2\u20134). On the coverage of LPWANs: Range evaluation and channel attenuation model for LoRa technology. Proceedings of the 2015 14th International Conference on ITS Telecommunications (ITST), Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITST.2015.7377400"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loriot, M., Aljer, A., and Shahrour, I. (2017, January 12\u201314). Analysis of the use of lorawan technology in a large-scale smart city demonstrator. Proceedings of the 2017 Sensors Networks Smart and Emerging Technologies (SENSET), Beirut, Lebanon.","DOI":"10.1109\/SENSET.2017.8125011"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulkarni, P., Hakim, Q.A., and Lakas, A. (2019). Experimental Evaluation of a Campus-deployed IoT Network using LoRa. IEEE Sens. J.","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2953572"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do\u011fan, G. (2019, January 25\u201327). Empirical Observations on LoRa Performance for Different Environments. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Applied Automation and Industrial Diagnostics (ICAAID), Elazig, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAAID.2019.8934983"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Marais, J.M. (2018). Construction and performance evaluation of a LoRaWAN testbed. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Pretoria]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4726","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2900735","article-title":"Evaluating the LoRaWAN Protocol Using a Permanent Outdoor Testbed","volume":"19","author":"Marais","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wixted, A.J., Kinnaird, P., Larijani, H., Tait, A., Ahmadinia, A., and Strachan, N. (2017). Evaluation of LoRa and LoRaWAN for wireless sensor networks. Proc. IEEE Sens., 5\u20137.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2016.7808712"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernandes Carvalho, D., Depari, A., Ferrari, P., Flammini, A., Rinaldi, S., and Sisinni, E. (2019, January 8\u201310). On the evaluation of application level delays in public LoRaWAN networks. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Measurements and Networking, Catania, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWMN.2019.8805012"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00f6tsch, A., and Hammer, F. (2019, January 27\u201329). Towards End-to-End Latency of LoRaWAN: Experimental Analysis and IIoT Applicability. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Measurements and Networking, Sundsvall, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/WFCS.2019.8758033"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2020, January 22). Estimates of the Population for the UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland\u2014Office for National Statistics, Available online: https:\/\/www.ons.gov.uk\/peoplepopulationandcommunity\/populationandmigration\/populationestimates\/datasets\/populationestimatesforukenglandandwalesscotlandandnorthernireland."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32345-0","article-title":"The Lancet Commission on pollution and health","volume":"391","author":"Landrigan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Williams, M., Evangelopoulos, D., Katsouyanni, K., and Walton, H. (2019). Personalising the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Summary for Decision Makers, Environmental Research Group King\u2019s College London. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Elsys.se (2020, January 13). ESM5k LoRaWAN Wireless Sensor. Available online: https:\/\/elsys.se\/public\/datasheets\/ESM5k-folder.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"47","article-title":"Development and Range Testing of a LoRaWAN System in an Urban Environment","volume":"12","author":"Harris","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron. Commun. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Basford, P.J., Johnston, S.J., and Cox, S.J. (2020, January 22). computenodes\/pi-cot: Pi Concentrator on Top V2.0.1 release | Zenodo. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.2539362."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Meijers, J. (2020, January 13). TTNMapper. Available online: https:\/\/ttnmapper.org\/."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez, I., Tanguy, P., and Nouvel, F. (2019, January 11\u201313). On the performance evaluation of LoRaWAN under Jamming. Proceedings of the 2019 12th IFIP Wireless and Mobile Networking Conference (WMNC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.23919\/WMNC.2019.8881830"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, C., Tan, R., and Huang, J. (2019). Secure Data Timestamping in Synchronization-Free LoRaWAN. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDCS47774.2020.00109"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varsier, N., and Schwoerer, J. (2017, January 21\u201325). Capacity limits of LoRaWAN technology for smart metering applications. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996383"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahmadhani, A., and Kuipers, F. (2018, January 2). When LoRaWAN Frames Collide. Proceedings of the 12th International Workshop on Wireless Network Testbeds, Experimental Evaluation and Characterization, New Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1145\/3267204.3267212"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bezerra, N.S., \u00c5hlund, C., Saguna, S., and de Sousa, V.A. (2019). Temperature Impact in LoRaWAN\u2014A Case Study in Northern Sweden. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204414"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barro, P.A., Zennaro, M., Degila, J., and Pietrosemoli, E. (2019). A smart cities LoRaWAN network based on autonomous base stations (BS) for some countries with limited internet access. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11040093"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vangelista, L., and Centenaro, M. (2019). Worldwide connectivity for the internet of things through LoRaWAN. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11030057"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2020, January 22). pyonair\/PyonAir-pycom 0.2.6 | Zenodo. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/ZENODO.3434214."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2020, January 22). pyonair\/PyonAir-PCB: PyonAir 2019 v5.0 | Zenodo. Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/ZENODO.3414843."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/648\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:44:32Z","timestamp":1760363072000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/3\/648"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20030648"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20030648","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,23]]}}}