{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T19:11:28Z","timestamp":1772910688827,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,13]],"date-time":"2020-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1581552000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research","award":["DF-321-611-1441"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DF-321-611-1441"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The field of cooperative intelligent transport systems and more specifically pedestrians to vehicles could be characterized as quite challenging, since there is a broad research area to be studied, with direct positive results to society. Pedestrians to vehicles is a type of cooperative intelligent transport system, within the group of early warning collision\/safety system. In this article, we examine the research and applications carried out so far within the field of pedestrians to vehicles cooperative transport systems by leveraging the information coming from vulnerable road users\u2019 smartphones. Moreover, an extensive literature review has been carried out in the fields of vulnerable road users outdoor localisation via smartphones and vulnerable road users next step\/movement prediction, which are closely related to pedestrian to vehicle applications and research. We identify gaps that exist in these fields that could be improved\/extended\/enhanced or newly developed, while we address future research objectives and methodologies that could support the improvement\/development of those identified gaps.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20040997","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,20]],"date-time":"2020-02-20T03:20:03Z","timestamp":1582168803000},"page":"997","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Use Of Smartphones for Ensuring Vulnerable Road User Safety through Path Prediction and Early Warning: An In-Depth Review of Capabilities, Limitations and Their Applications in Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7526-6685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioannis","family":"Vourgidis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Informatics, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5360-9782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leandros","family":"Maglaras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Informatics, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ahmed S.","family":"Alfakeeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8062-1258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali H.","family":"Al-Bayatti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0632-3172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed Amine","family":"Ferrag","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Guelma University, Guelma 24000, Algeria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2016.04.208","article-title":"Co-operative ITS: ESD a Smartphone Based System for Sustainability and Transportation Safety","volume":"83","author":"Astarita","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rufino, J., Silva, L., Fernandes, B., Almeida, J., and Ferreira, J. (2018, January 9\u201313). Empowering Vulnerable Road Users in C-ITS. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps), Abu Dhabi, UAE.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2018.8644266"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Johnson, P. (2016). Ericsson Mobility Report. IoT Section, Ericsson."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Ericsson (2019). Ericsson Mobility Report Q4 2018 Update, Ericsson."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2802","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2017.2680468","article-title":"Smartphone-Based Vehicle Telematics: A Ten-Year Anniversary","volume":"18","author":"Wahlstrom","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2014.6736756","article-title":"Vehicular cloud networking: Architecture and design principles","volume":"52","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2009.07.011","article-title":"A survey of urban vehicular sensing platforms","volume":"54","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caballero-Gil, C., Caballero-Gil, P., and Molina-Gil, J. (2013). Design and Implementation of an Application for Deploying Vehicular Networks with Smartphones. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw., 2013.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/834596"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"(2019, October 01). Advanced Traffic Management Systems. Available online: http:\/\/www.umtri.umich.edu\/our-focus\/advanced-traffic-management-systems."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2012.07.001","article-title":"The impact of travel information\u2019s accuracy on route-choice","volume":"26","author":"Bifulco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maglaras, L.A., Basaras, P., and Katsaros, D. (2013, January 2\u20136). Exploiting vehicular communications for reducing CO2 emissions in urban environments. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Connected Vehicles and Expo (ICCVE), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVE.2013.6799765"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Indian Institute of Technlology Bombay (2014). Intelligent Transportation Systems\u2014I. Transportation System Engineering, Indian Institute of Technlology Bombay. Chapter 48."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"27","article-title":"Intelligent Transport Systems in Commercial Vehicle Operations","volume":"1","author":"Agrawala","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. CCT"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bagheri, M., Siekkinen, M., and Nurminen, J.K. (2014, January 3\u20137). Cellular-based vehicle to pedestrian (V2P) adaptive communication for collision avoidance. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Connected Vehicles and Expo (ICCVE 2014), Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVE.2014.7297588"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2011.061411.00019","article-title":"Vehicular networking: A survey and tutorial on requirements, architectures, challenges, standards and solutions","volume":"13","author":"Karagiannis","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Schwarz, S., Sellitsch, D., Tscheligi, M., and Olaverri-Monreal, C. (2015, January 9\u201311). Safety in Pedestrian Navigation: Road Crossing Habits and Route Quality Needs. Proceedings of the Future Active Safety Technology towards Zero Traffic Accidents (FAST-Zero 2015 Symposium), Gothenburg, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"17","article-title":"Autonomous vehicles and smart mobility related technologies","volume":"8","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infocommun. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allamehzadeh, A., and Olaverri-Monreal, C. (2016, January 19\u201322). Automatic and manual driving paradigms: Cost-efficient mobile application for the assessment of driver inattentiveness and detection of road conditions. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/IVS.2016.7535359"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Chu, H., Raman, V., Shen, J., Kansal, A., Bahl, V., and Choudhury, R.R. (2014, January 6\u201310). I am a smartphone and I know my user is driving. Proceedings of the 2014 Sixth International Conference on Communication Systems and Networks (COMSNETS), Bangalore, India."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, X., Miucic, R., Yang, S., Al-Stouhi, S., Misener, J., Bai, S., and Chan, W.H. (2014, January 14\u201317). Cars talk to phones: A DSRC based vehicle-pedestrian safety system. Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/VTCFall.2014.6965898"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, S., Borgiattino, C., Ren, Y., Gruteser, M., and Chen, Y. (2014, January 16). On the limits of positioning-based pedestrian risk awareness. Proceedings of the 2014 Workshop on Mobile Augmented Reality and Robotic Technology-Based Systems\u2014MARS \u201914, Bretton Woods, NH, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2609829.2609834"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Guo, B., Peng, G., Zhou, G., and Yu, Z. (2016, January 12\u201316). CrowdWatch: Pedestrian safety assistance with mobile crowd sensing. Proceedings of the Adjunct\u2014International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp), Heidelberg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1145\/2968219.2971433"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussein, A., Garc\u00eda, F., Armingol, J.M., and Olaverri-Monreal, C. (2016, January 1\u20134). P2V and V2P communication for pedestrian warning on the basis of autonomous vehicles. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, ITSC, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2016.7795885"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"7967249","article-title":"SenSafe: A smartphone-based traffic safety framework by sensing vehicle and pedestrian behaviors","volume":"2016","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mob. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1740","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2627014","article-title":"Fusion of Perception and V2P Communication Systems for Safety of Vulnerable Road Users Fusion of Perception and V2P Communication Systems for Safety of Vulnerable Road Users","volume":"18","author":"Merdrignac","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Rub, T., Krause, J., and Schonrock, R. (2016, January 10\u201314). V2X-based cooperative protection system for vulnerable road users and its impact on traffic. Proceedings of the ITS World Congress, Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bachmann, M., Morold, M., and David, K. (2017, January 13\u201317). Improving smartphone based collision avoidance by using pedestrian context information. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PerCom Workshops), Kona, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOMW.2017.7917507"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S37","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2017.1310380","article-title":"Concept of an enhanced V2X pedestrian collision avoidance system with a cost function-based pedestrian model","volume":"18","author":"Kotte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Traffic Inj. Prev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4564","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2016.2598786","article-title":"WiSafe: Wi-Fi Pedestrian Collision Avoidance System","volume":"66","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Datta, T., Jain, S., and Gruteser, M. (2014, January 28\u201330). Towards city-scale smartphone sensing of potentially unsafe pedestrian movements. Proceedings of the 11th IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad Hoc and Sensor Systems (MASS 2014), Philadelphia, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MASS.2014.106"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Engel, S., Kratzsch, C., David, K., Warkow, D., and Holzknecht, M. (2013). Car2Pedestrian Positioning: Methods for Improving GPS Positioning in Radio-Based VRU Protection Systems, Tagung Fahrerassistenzsysteme."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flach, A., Memon, A.Q., Lau, S.L., and David, K. (2011, January 15\u201318). Pedestrian movement recognition for radio based collision avoidance: A performance analysis. Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference, Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/VETECS.2011.5956722"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Sugimoto, C., Nakamura, Y., and Hashimoto, T. (2008, January 7\u20139). Prototype of pedestrian-to-vehicle communication system for the prevention of pedestrian accidents using both 3G wireless and WLAN communication. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Wireless Pervasive Computing (ISWPC 2008), Santorini, Greece."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Klaus, D., and Flach, A. (2013). Method for Avoiding Collision. (No. 8,547,249), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2010.133","article-title":"Bidirectionally coupled network and road traffic simulation for improved IVC analysis","volume":"10","author":"Sommer","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bartie, P., and Mackaness, W. (2019, October 01). D3.4 Pedestrian Position Tracker. Available online: http:\/\/www.spacebook-project.eu\/pubs\/D3.4.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Li, B., Zhang, J., Mumford, P., and Dempster, A.G. (2011, January 15\u201317). How good is Assisted GPS?. Proceedings of the International Global Navigation Satellite Systems Society (IGNSS Symposium 2011), Sydney, Australi."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Van Diggelen, F., and Enge, P. (2015, January 14\u201318). The world\u2019s first GPS MOOC and worldwide laboratory using smartphones. Proceedings of the 28th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, ION GNSS 2015, Tampa, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoon, D., Kee, C., Seo, J., and Park, B. (2016). Position accuracy improvement by implementing the DGNSS-CP algorithm in smartphones. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060910"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ssebazza, L., and Pan, Y.J. (2015). Dgps-Based Localization and Path Following Approach for Outdoor Wheeled Mobile Robots. Int. J. Robot. Autom., 30.","DOI":"10.2316\/Journal.206.2015.1.206-3971"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8328","DOI":"10.1038\/srep08328","article-title":"Precise positioning with current multi-constellation Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and BeiDou","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11280","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911280","article-title":"GPS\/MEMS INS data fusion and map matching in urban areas","volume":"13","author":"Chu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463305003486","article-title":"MEMS Based Pedestrian Navigation System","volume":"59","author":"Cho","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, A.R., Seco, F., Prieto, C., and Guevara, J. (2009, January 26\u201328). A comparison of pedestrian dead-reckoning algorithms using a low-cost MEMS IMU. Proceedings of the WISP 2009\u20146th IEEE International Symposium on Intelligent Signal Processing, Budapest, Hungry.","DOI":"10.1109\/WISP.2009.5286542"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"35","article-title":"Pedestrian tracking using inertial sensors","volume":"3","author":"Feliz","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Agents"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2013.07.027","article-title":"Integration of GPS and low cost INS for pedestrian navigation aided by building layout","volume":"26","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Bo, C., Li, X.Y., Jung, T., Mao, X., Tao, Y., and Yao, L. (October, January 30). SmartLoc: Push the Limit of the Inertial Sensor Based Metropolitan Localization Using Smartphone. Proceedings of the Mobicom 13, Miami, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Li, Q., and Chen, G. (2013, January 14\u201319). APT: Accurate outdoor pedestrian tracking with smartphones. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM, Turin, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.2013.6567057"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-6180-2014-65","article-title":"Pedestrian dead reckoning for MARG navigation using a smartphone","volume":"2014","author":"Tian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eurasip J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2016.09.010","article-title":"Smartphone-based integrated PDR\/GPS\/Bluetooth pedestrian location","volume":"59","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poorani, M., Kumaresh, S., Karthick, K., Leena, V., and Vaidehi, V. (2018, January 10\u201311). Real-Time Localization of a Person Using Smart Phone. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Recent Trends in Advance Computing (ICRTAC), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRTAC.2018.8679386"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2010.08.004","article-title":"A system for destination and future route prediction based on trajectory mining","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asahara, A., Maruyama, K., Sato, A., and Seto, K. (2011, January 1\u20134). Pedestrian-movement prediction based on mixed Markov-chain model. Proceedings of the 19th ACM SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems\u2014GIS \u201911, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2093973.2093979"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, A.Y., and Wang, L. (2017, January 8\u201311). Walking Step prediction based on GA optimized neural network algorithm. Proceedings of the 2017 2nd IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Applications (ICCIA), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIAPP.2017.8167225"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murphey, Y.L., Liu, C., Tayyab, M., and Narayan, D. (December, January 27). Accurate pedestrian path prediction using neural networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI 2017), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SSCI.2017.8285398"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, D., Kim, Y., Estrin, D., and Srivastava, M. (2010, January 3\u20135). SensLoc: Sensing everyday places and paths using less energy. Proceedings of the 8th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1145\/1869983.1869989"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, P., Zheng, Y., Li, Z., and Shen, G. (2012, January 6\u20139). IODetector: A Generic Service for Indoor\/Outdoor Detection. Proceedings of the 10th ACM Conference on Embedded Network Sensor Systems, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/2426656.2426709"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Greenfeld, J. (2002, January 13\u201317). Matching GPS Observations to Locations on a Digital Map. Proceedings of the 81th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/S0968-090X(00)00026-7","article-title":"Some Map Matching Algorithms for Personal Navigation Assistants","volume":"8","author":"White","year":"2000","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/4\/997\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:57:20Z","timestamp":1760173040000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/4\/997"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,13]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20040997"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20040997","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,13]]}}}