{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:44:41Z","timestamp":1760237081167,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,18]],"date-time":"2020-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1581984000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007219","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["19ZR1467300"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["19ZR1467300"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007219","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61974156"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61974156"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A high-precision acceleration measurement system based on an ultra-sensitive tunnel magneto-resistance (TMR) sensor is presented in this paper. A \u201cforce\u2013magnetic\u2013electric\u201d coupling structure that converts an input acceleration into a change in magnetic field around the TMR sensor is designed. In such a structure, a micro-cantilever is integrated with a magnetic field source on its tip. Under an acceleration, the mechanical displacement of the cantilever causes a change in the spatial magnetic field sensed by the TMR sensor. The TMR sensor is constructed with a Wheatstone bridge structure to achieve an enhanced sensitivity. Meanwhile, a low-noise differential circuit is developed for the proposed system to further improve the precision of the measured acceleration. The experimental results show that the micro-system achieves a measurement resolution of 19 \u03bcg\/\u221aHz at 1 Hz, a scale factor of 191 mV\/g within a range of \u00b1 2 g, and a bias instability of 38 \u03bcg (Allan variance). The noise sources of the proposed system are thoroughly investigated, which shows that low-frequency 1\/f noise is the dominant noise source. We propose to use a high-frequency modulation technique to suppress the 1\/f noise effectively. Measurement results show that the 1\/f noise is suppressed about 8.6-fold at 1 Hz and the proposed system resolution can be improved to 2.2 \u03bcg\/\u221aHz theoretically with this high-frequency modulation technique.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,20]],"date-time":"2020-02-20T03:20:03Z","timestamp":1582168803000},"page":"1117","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["High-Precision Acceleration Measurement System Based on Tunnel Magneto-Resistance Effect"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4472-8787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Gao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7961-6232","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Institute of Microsystem and Information Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yingfei","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1614-9606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dacheng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17397","article-title":"Measurement of the Earth tides with a MEMS gravimeter","volume":"531","author":"Middlemiss","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2013.2271595","article-title":"Estimation of Information Sharing Error by Dynamic Deformation Between Inertial Navigation Systems","volume":"61","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8946","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2818673","article-title":"Ensemble Particle Filter Based on KLD and Its Application to Initial Alignment of the SINS in Large Misalignment Angles","volume":"65","author":"Shao","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2013.2253063","article-title":"A Real-Time Adaptive High-Gain EKF, Applied to a Quadcopter Inertial Navigation System","volume":"61","author":"Sebesta","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2014.2319196","article-title":"A Seismic-Grade Resonant MEMS Accelerometer","volume":"23","author":"Zou","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechanical Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3074","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2264546","article-title":"Multistep Prediction of Physiological Tremor for Surgical Robotics Applications","volume":"60","author":"Veluvolu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065001","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4921903","article-title":"High resolution quartz flexure accelerometer based on laser self-mixing interferometry","volume":"86","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instruments"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221111","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4881936","article-title":"High sensitivity optomechanical reference accelerometer over 10 kHz","volume":"104","author":"Cervantes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Flores, J.G.F., Huang, Y., Li, Y., Wang, D., Goldberg, N., Zheng, J., Yu, M., Lu, M., Kutzer, M., and Rogers, D. (2016, January 22\u221225). A CMOS-compatible oscillation-mode optomechanical DC accelerometer at 730-ng\/Hz1\/2 resolution. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Symposium on Inertial Sensors and Systems, Laguna Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095002","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4749845","article-title":"High resolution space quartz-flexure accelerometer based on capacitive sensing and electrostatic control technology","volume":"83","author":"Tian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instruments"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, X., and Seshia, A.A. (2015, January 21\u221225). A high-resolution resonant MEMS accelerometer, Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS). Proceedings of the 2015 Transducers\u20142015 18th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS), Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2015.7181156"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2002.805207","article-title":"A vacuum packaged surface micromachined resonant accelerometer","volume":"11","author":"Seshia","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechanical Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1109\/84.946800","article-title":"A high-precision, wide-bandwidth micromachined tunneling accelerometer","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechanical Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2005.851865","article-title":"Polymer-based wide-bandwidth and high-sensitivity micromachined electron tunneling accelerometers using hot embossing","volume":"14","author":"Cui","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechanical Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.04.007","article-title":"A new design and a fabrication approach to realize a high performance three axes capacitive MEMS accelerometer","volume":"244","author":"Aydemir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sensors Actuators A: Phys."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2015.2428278","article-title":"A Closed-Loop \u2206\u03a3 Interface for a High-Q Micromechanical Capacitive Accelerometer With 200 ng\/\u221aHz Input Noise Density","volume":"50","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-St. Circ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, Y., Zwahlen, P., Nguyen, A.M., Frosio, R., and Rudolf, F. (2011, January 5\u22129). Ultra-high precision MEMS accelerometer. Proceedings of the 2011 16th International Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2011.5969218"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2983","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2006.884864","article-title":"A 4.5-mW Closed-Loop \u2206\u03a3 Micro-Gravity CMOS SOI Accelerometer","volume":"41","author":"Amini","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-St. Circ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2651","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2007.908764","article-title":"A Micropower Interface ASIC for a Capacitive 3-Axis Micro-Accelerometer","volume":"42","author":"Paavola","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-state Circuits"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3283","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2012.2195782","article-title":"MEMS Capacitive Accelerometer-Based Middle Ear Microphone","volume":"59","author":"Young","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2007.10.055","article-title":"A novel elastomer-based magnetoresistive accelerometer","volume":"145","author":"Phan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Shoji, S. (2007). Acceleration Sensor and Magnetic Disk Drive Apparatus. (US7222535B2), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1109\/JSSC.2010.2040120","article-title":"A 32-Mb SPRAM with 2T1R Memory Cell, Localized Bi-Directional Write Driver and \u20181\u2019\/\u20180\u2019 Dual-Array Equalized Reference Scheme","volume":"45","author":"Takemura","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212507","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2742576","article-title":"Effect of electrode composition on the tunnel magnetoresistance of pseudo-spin-valve magnetic tunnel junction with a MgO tunnel barrier","volume":"90","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232510","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2402904","article-title":"Effect of high annealing temperature on giant tunnel magnetoresistance ratio of CoFeB\/MgO\/CoFeB magnetic tunnel junctions","volume":"89","author":"Hayakawa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"082508","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2976435","article-title":"Tunnel magnetoresistance of 604% at 300K by suppression of Ta diffusion in CoFeB\/MgO\/CoFeB pseudo-spin-valves annealed at high temperature","volume":"93","author":"Ikeda","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmmm.2009.05.060","article-title":"Noise of MgO-based magnetic tunnel junctions","volume":"322","author":"Polovy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Magn. Magn. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202501","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3430064","article-title":"Strongly suppressed 1\/f noise and enhanced magnetoresistance in epitaxial Fe\u2013V\/MgO\/Fe magnetic tunnel junctions","volume":"96","author":"Herranz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, L., Yao, Y., Li, S., Xu, X., and Xu, D. (2019, January 1\u22125). Micro Acceleration Measurement System Based On Highly-Sensitive Tunnel Magneto-Resistance Sensor. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Inertial Sensors and Systems (INERTIAL), Naples, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISISS.2019.8739736"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"2447","article-title":"Wireless Alarm Microsystem Self-powered by Vibration-threshold Triggered Energy-harvester","volume":"63","author":"Tang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2013.2258298","article-title":"A New Sensitivity-Improving Method for Piezoelectric Resonance Mass Sensors Through Cantilever Cross-Section Modification","volume":"61","author":"Zhao","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2011.2171323","article-title":"An Analytical Capacitance Model of Temperature-Sensitive, Large-Displacement Multimorph Cantilevers: Numerical and Experimental Validation","volume":"21","author":"Scott","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechanical Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2015.08.002","article-title":"An improved interface and noise analysis of a turning fork microgyroscope structure","volume":"70","author":"Cao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2008.2004952","article-title":"Dynamic Synthesis of Microsystems Using the Segment Rayleigh\u2013Ritz Method","volume":"17","author":"Rinaldi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Microelectromechanical Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2013.10.027","article-title":"Modified cantilever beam shaped FBG based accelerometer with self temperature compensation","volume":"205","author":"Khan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors Actuators A: Phys."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2018.2826462","article-title":"Influence of the Conductor Position on a Circular Array of Hall Sensors for Current Measurement","volume":"66","author":"Itzke","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"7200106","article-title":"Repulsive Magnetic Levitation Force Calculation For A High Precision 6-DoF Magnetic Levitation Positioning System","volume":"53","author":"Lahdo","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSI.2008.927011","article-title":"Full Model and Characterization of Noise in Operational Amplifier","volume":"56","author":"Giusi","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I: Regul. Pap."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, B., Wang, B., Yan, H., and Gao, X. (2019). Design of a Micromachined Z-axis Tunneling Magnetoresistive Accelerometer with Electrostatic Force Feedback. Micromachines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi10020158"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(01)00537-4","article-title":"Tracking system with five degrees of freedom using a 2D-array of Hall sensors and a permanent magnet","volume":"92","author":"Schlageter","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sensors Actuators A: Phys."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Yao, Y., Xue, C., Wang, P., Young, D., and Xu, D. (2018, January 24\u201327). A Novel Method of Acceleration Measurement Based On Tunneling Magnetoresistance. Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Conference of Transducers and Micro-Nano Technology 2018, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234101","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4769903","article-title":"Integrating magnetoresistive sensors with microelectromechanical systems for noise reduction","volume":"101","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8382","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1555975","article-title":"Chopping techniques for low-frequency nanotesla spin-dependent tunneling field sensors","volume":"93","author":"Jander","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/4\/1117\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:58:53Z","timestamp":1760173133000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/4\/1117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,18]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s20041117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20041117","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,18]]}}}