{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T08:45:45Z","timestamp":1776329145638,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":221,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,6]],"date-time":"2020-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1583452800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009888","name":"Regione Toscana","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CENTAURO project (CUP D88C15000210008)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CENTAURO project (CUP D88C15000210008)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009888","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper reviews automated visual-based defect detection approaches applicable to various materials, such as metals, ceramics and textiles. In the first part of the paper, we present a general taxonomy of the different defects that fall in two classes: visible (e.g., scratches, shape error, etc.) and palpable (e.g., crack, bump, etc.) defects. Then, we describe artificial visual processing techniques that are aimed at understanding of the captured scenery in a mathematical\/logical way. We continue with a survey of textural defect detection based on statistical, structural and other approaches. Finally, we report the state of the art for approaching the detection and classification of defects through supervised and non-supervised classifiers and deep learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20051459","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,6]],"date-time":"2020-03-06T09:26:41Z","timestamp":1583486801000},"page":"1459","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":364,"title":["Visual-Based Defect Detection and Classification Approaches for Industrial Applications\u2014A SURVEY"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0788-3582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam\u00e1s","family":"Czimmermann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]},{"given":"Gastone","family":"Ciuti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8429-5544","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Milazzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]},{"given":"Marcello","family":"Chiurazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Roccella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1489-5701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Calogero Maria","family":"Oddo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]},{"given":"Paolo","family":"Dario","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The BioRobotics Institute of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna and Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI of Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, 56025 Pontedera (PISA), Italy"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/0029-1021(75)90030-4","article-title":"Non-destructive testing: Curtis, G. 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