{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:47:16Z","timestamp":1760237236428,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,14]],"date-time":"2020-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1584144000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No. 61501481"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 61501481"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traditional constant false alarm rate (CFAR) methods have shown their potential for foreign object debris (FOD) indication. However, the performance of these methods would deteriorate under the complex clutter background in airport scenes. This paper presents a threshold-improved approach based on the cell-averaging clutter-map (CA-CM-) CFAR and tests it on a millimeter-wave (MMW) radar system. Clutter cases are first classified with variability indexes (VIs). In homogeneous background, the threshold is calculated by the student-t-distributed test statistic; under the discontinuous clutter conditions, the threshold is modified according to current VI conditions, in order to address the performance decrease caused by extended clutter edges. Experimental results verify that the chosen targets can be indicated by the t-distributed threshold in homogeneous background. Moreover, effective detection of the obscured targets could also be achieved with significant detectability improvement at extended clutter edges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20061635","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,18]],"date-time":"2020-03-18T08:20:44Z","timestamp":1584519644000},"page":"1635","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["An Anti-FOD Method Based on CA-CM-CFAR for MMW Radar in Complex Clutter Background"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0007-3010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoqi","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Huo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronic Science and Technology, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"given":"Jianwei","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronic Science and Technology, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"given":"Xinyu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronic Science and Technology, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"given":"Weidong","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electronic Science and Technology, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2019, October 30). Tarsier\u00ae. Automatic Runway FOD Detection System. Available online: https:\/\/www.tarsierfod.com\/."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4835","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2016.2578462","article-title":"Design and Field Feasibility Evaluation of Distributed-Type 96 GHz FMCW Millimeter-Wave Radar Based on Radio-Over-Fiber and Optical Frequency Multiplier","volume":"34","author":"Futatsumori","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2018, April 10). AC 150\/5220-24\u2014Foreign Object Debris Detection Equipment, Available online: https:\/\/www.faa.gov\/documentLibrary\/media\/Advisory_Circular\/AC_150_5220-24.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mazouni, K., Zeitler, A., and Lanteri, J. (2011, January 12\u201314). 76.5 GHz millimeter-wave radar for foreign objects debris detection on airport runways. Proceedings of the 8th European Radar Conference, Manchester, UK.","DOI":"10.1017\/S1759078712000451"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1017\/S175907871100105X","article-title":"77 GHz offset reflectarray for FOD detection on airport runways","volume":"4","author":"Mazouni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Microw. Wirel. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Mazouni, K., Kohmura, A., Futatsumori, S., Yonemoto, N., Dauvignac, J.-Y., Pichot, C., and Migliaccio, C. (October, January 30). 77 GHz FM-CW radar for FODs detection. Proceedings of the 7th European Radar Conference, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feil, P., Menzel, W., and Nguyen, T.P. (2008, January 30\u201331). Foreign objects debris detection (FOD) on airport runways using a broadband 78 GHz sensor. Proceedings of the European Radar Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/EUMC.2008.4751779"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2017.2699282","article-title":"Multifrequency Experimental Analysis (10 to 77 GHz) on the Asphalt Reflectivity and RCS of FOD Targets","volume":"14","author":"Mollo","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Galati, G., Ferri, M., and Marti, F. (1994, January 26\u201328). Advanced radar techniques for the air transport system: The surface movement miniradar concept. Proceedings of the IEEE National Telesystems Conference, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2010.5545207","article-title":"Airport Surveillance Processing Chain for High Resolution Radar","volume":"46","author":"Galati","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aero Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, A.K. (2002, January 23). A review of radar as a sensor for advanced surface movement guidance and control systems (A-SMGCS). Proceedings of the IET Aviation Surveillance Systems, London, UK.","DOI":"10.1049\/ic:20020014"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Tang, X., and Han, S. (2012, January 24\u201326). Aircraft Intersection Collision Conflict Detection and Resolution under the Control of A-SMGCS. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Modelling, Identification and Control, Wuhan, China."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2020, March 04). THALES: Discover THALES Research & Technology. Available online: https:\/\/www.thalesgroup.com\/en\/global\/innovation\/research-and-technology."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19880531","article-title":"Performance analysis of CA-CFAR in the presence of compound Gaussian clutter","volume":"13","author":"Conte","year":"1988","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Wong, C., Chang, C., Liu, W., and Fu, J.S. (2000, January 14\u201316). CA-CFAR in Weibull Background. Proceedings of the International Conference on Microwave & Millimeter Wave Technology, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Sciotti, M., and Lombardo, P. (2001, January 15\u201318). Performance evaluation of radar detection schemes based on CA-CFAR against K-distributed clutter. Proceedings of the International Conference on Radar, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19960213","article-title":"Performance of excision GO-CFAR detectors in nonhomogeneous environments","volume":"2","author":"Han","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Jung, K.T., and Kim, H.M. (1998, January 9). Performance analysis of generalized modified order statistics CFAR detectors. Proceedings of the IEEE-SP International Symposium, Pittsburgh, PA, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1109\/7.18634","article-title":"Detection loss due to interfering targets in ordered statistics CFAR","volume":"6","author":"Levanon","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aero. Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19949886","article-title":"Analysis and comparison of two order statistics CFAR systems","volume":"141","author":"Galati","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Golikov, V., Lebedeva, O., and Castillejos, A. (2005, January 13\u201315). Robust CFAR detection in clutter with unknown covariance matrix. Proceedings of the Computational Advances in Multi-Sensor Adaptive Processing, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung, C.H., Song, W.Y., Rho, S.H., Kim, J., Park, J.T., and Kwag, Y.K. (2010, January 10\u201314). Double-step fast CFAR scheme for multiple target detection in high resolution SAR images. Proceedings of the IEEE Radar Conference, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2010.5494444"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16279","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2800058","article-title":"A CFAR Detector Based on a Robust Combined Method with Spatial Information and Sparsity Regularization in Non-Homogeneous Weibull Clutter","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.04.185","article-title":"Comparative Study of Combined CFAR Algorithms for Non-Homogenous Environment","volume":"131","author":"Gufran","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1986.310777","article-title":"Clutter Map CFAR Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Nitzberg","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aero. Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsp.2009.10.001","article-title":"Performance analysis of Nitzberg\u2019s clutter map for Weibull distribution","volume":"20","author":"Meng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Digit. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19960212","article-title":"Hybrid clutter-map\/L-CFAR procedure for clutter rejection in nonhomogeneous environment","volume":"4","author":"Lops","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19990496","article-title":"False alarm control and self-masking avoidance by a bi-parametric clutter map in a mixed interference environment","volume":"4","author":"Naldi","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-f-2.1989.0038","article-title":"Scan-by-scan averaging CFAR","volume":"136","author":"Lops","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Pro. F-Radar Signal Proc."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1109\/7.575877","article-title":"Clutter-map CFAR detection for range-spread targets in non-Gaussian clutter. Part I: System design","volume":"33","author":"Conte","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aero. Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1109\/7.575879","article-title":"Clutter-map CFAR detection for range-spread targets in non-Gaussian clutter. Part II: Performance assessment","volume":"33","author":"Conte","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aero. Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Smith, M.E., and Varshney, P.K. (1997, January 13\u201315). VI-CFAR: A novel CFAR algorithm based on data variability. Proceedings of the IEEE Radar Conference, Puerto Syracuse, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1109\/7.869503","article-title":"Intelligent CFAR processor based on data variability","volume":"36","author":"Smith","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aero. Elect. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheikh, K., and Soltani, F. (2011, January 16\u201318). Performance of the fuzzy VI-CFAR detector in non-homogeneous environments. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Signal and Image Processing Applications, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSIPA.2011.6144088"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-49831-6_44","article-title":"Performance Analysis and Comparison of CFAR Methods for FOD Detection in Airport Runway Environment","volume":"386","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lect. Notes Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Li, H. (2016). Research about Target Detection in FOD Radar. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Electronic Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-5803-6_34","article-title":"FOD Detection on Airport Runway with Clutter Map CFAR Plane Technique","volume":"202","author":"Jin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lect. Notes Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-00536-2_62","article-title":"CFAR Detection Method in Multi-target Environments for Foreign Object Debris Surveillance Radar","volume":"246","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lect. Notes Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Wang, B., and Zhang, W. (2017, January 22\u201325). FOD detection based on millimeter wave radar using higher order statistics. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing, Communications and Computing, Xiamen, China."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Mao, Y. (2018). Research and Implementation of CFAR Detection Algorithm for Radar Clutter Map. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Xidian University]."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/6\/1635\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:07:01Z","timestamp":1760173621000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/6\/1635"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,14]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s20061635"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20061635","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,14]]}}}