{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:47:05Z","timestamp":1760237225097,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]],"date-time":"2020-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585008000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016YFB0502102, 2016YFB0502101, 2016YFB0502103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFB0502102, 2016YFB0502101, 2016YFB0502103"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents an evaluation of real-time kinematic (RTK)\/Pseudolite\/landmarks assistance heuristic drift elimination (LAHDE)\/inertial measurement unit-based personal dead reckoning systems (IMU-PDR) integrated pedestrian navigation system for urban and indoor environments. Real-time kinematic (RTK) technique is widely used for high-precision positioning and can provide periodic correction to inertial measurement unit (IMU)-based personal dead reckoning systems (PDR) outdoors. However, indoors, where global positioning system (GPS) signals are not available, RTK fails to achieve high-precision positioning. Pseudolite can provide satellite-like navigation signals for user receivers to achieve positioning in indoor environments. However, there are some problems in pseudolite positioning field, such as complex multipath effect in indoor environments and integer ambiguity of carrier phase. In order to avoid the limitation of these factors, a local search method based on carrier phase difference with the assistance of IMU-PDR is proposed in this paper, which can achieve higher positioning accuracy. Besides, heuristic drift elimination algorithm with the assistance of manmade landmarks (LAHDE) is introduced to eliminate the accumulated error in headings derived by IMU-PDR in indoor corridors. An algorithm verification system was developed to carry out real experiments in a cooperation scene. Results show that, although the proposed pedestrian navigation system has to use human behavior to switch the positioning algorithm according to different scenarios, it is still effective in controlling the IMU-PDR drift error in multiscenarios including outdoor, indoor corridor, and indoor room for different people.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20061791","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]],"date-time":"2020-03-24T07:16:08Z","timestamp":1585034168000},"page":"1791","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["RTK\/Pseudolite\/LAHDE\/IMU-PDR Integrated Pedestrian Navigation System for Urban and Indoor Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Ruihui","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Land Environment and Disaster Monitoring, MNR, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1903-242X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunjia","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Land Environment and Disaster Monitoring, MNR, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9743-2499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongji","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Land Environment and Disaster Monitoring, MNR, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}]},{"given":"Baoguo","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1212-0715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xingli","family":"Gan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1064-7399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"given":"Heng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"given":"Shuang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"given":"Haonan","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]},{"given":"Jianqiang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, 589 ZhongShan Street, Qiaoxi District, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Borenstein, J., and Feng, L. (1996, January 22\u201328). Gyrodometry: A new method for combining data from gyros, and odometry in mobile robots. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robot Automation, Minneapolis, MN, USA."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2005.140","article-title":"Pedestrian Tracking with Shoe-mounted Inertial Sensors","volume":"25","author":"Foxlin","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nilsson, J.O., Skog, I., and H\u00e4ndel, P. (2010, January 15\u201317). Performance characterisation of foot-mounted ZUPT-aided INSs and other related systems. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2010.5646939"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Q., Zhang, H., Sun, Y., Zhu, Y., Zhuang, X., Jia, J., and Zhang, P. (2018). An Optimal Enhanced Kalman Filter for a ZUPT-Aided Pedestrian Positioning Coupling Model. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051404"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Rajagopal, S. (2008). Personal Dead Reckoning System with Shoe Mounted Inertial Sensors. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Department of Royal Institute of Technology (KTH)]."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"78","article-title":"Heuristic Reduction of Gyro Drift in Gyro-Based Vehicle Tracking","volume":"2","author":"Borenstein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Veh. Inf. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, A.R., Seco, F., Prieto, J.C., and Guevara, J. (2010, January 11\u201312). Indoor pedestrian navigation using an INS\/EKF framework for yaw drift reduction and a foot-mounted IMU. Proceedings of the Workshop on Positioning Navigation & Communication, Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/WPNC.2010.5649300"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, A.R., Seco, F., Zampella, F., Prieto, J.C., and Guevara, J. (2011, January 21\u201323). Improved heuristic drift elimination (iHDE) for pedestrian navigation in complex buildings. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Guimaraes, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2011.6071923"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, T., Zhang, H., Gao, Z., Chen, Q., and Niu, X. (2018). High-Accuracy Positioning in Urban Environments Using Single-Frequency Multi-GNSS RTK\/MEMS-IMU Integration. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020205"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, Z., Nie, P., Tao, L., Sun, J., and Zhu, B. (2019). RTK with the Assistance of an IMU-Based Pedestrian Navigation Algorithm for Smartphones. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143228"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bi, J., Wang, Y., Li, X., Qi, H., Cao, H., and Xu, S. (2018). An Adaptive Weighted KNN Positioning Method Based on Omnidirectional Fingerprint Database and Twice Affinity Propagation Clustering. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082502"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Jung, S., Lee, C.O., and Han, D. (2011, January 24\u201325). Wi-Fi fingerprint-based approaches following log-distance path loss model for indoor positioning. Proceedings of the Mtt-s International Microwave Workshop Series on Intelligent Radio for Future Personal Terminals, Daejeon, Korea."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"31","article-title":"Indoor Localization based on Bluetooth Technology: A Brief Review","volume":"97","author":"Singh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Naya, F., Noma, H., Ohmura, R., and Kogure, K. (2005, January 18\u201321). Bluetooth-based Indoor Proximity Sensing for Nursing Context Awareness. Proceedings of the Wearable Computers, Osaka, Japan."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1023\/B:WINE.0000044029.06344.dd","article-title":"LANDMARC: Indoor Location Sensing Using Active RFID","volume":"10","author":"Ni","year":"2004","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozdenizci, B., Ok, K., Coskun, V., and Aydin, M.N. (2011, January 25\u201327). Development of an Indoor Navigation System Using NFC Technology. Proceedings of the Information and Computing (ICIC), 2011 Fourth International Conference, Phuket Island, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIC.2011.53"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiemann, J., Eckermann, F., and Wietfeld, C. (2016, January 4\u20137). Multi-user interference and wireless clock synchronization in TDOA-based UWB localization. Proceedings of the International Conference on Indoor Positioning & Indoor Navigation, Alcala de Henares, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2016.7743696"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pannuto, P. (2016, January 3). Ultra-wideband and indoor localization. Proceedings of the Workshop on Hot Topics in Wireless, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2980115.2980124"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holm, S. (2013, January 13\u201315). Ultrasound positioning based on time-of-flight and signal strength. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2012.6418728"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2011.2159317","article-title":"Accurate Pedestrian Indoor Navigation by Tightly Coupling Foot-Mounted IMU and RFID Measurements","volume":"61","author":"Ruiz","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, A.G., Fernandes, D., Catarino, A.P., Rocha, A.M., and Monteiro, J.L. (2019). A Loose-Coupled Fusion of Inertial and UWB Assisted by a Decision-Making Algorithm for Localization of Emergency Responders. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8121463"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Chen, X., Cheng, J., Zhao, Q., and Wang, Y. (2016, January 23\u201326). Improving tightly-coupled model for indoor pedestrian navigation using foot-mounted IMU and UWB measurements. Proceedings of the Conference: 2016 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC 2016), Taipei, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2016.7520489"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.3390\/mi6060793","article-title":"PDR\/INS\/WiFi Integration Based on Handheld Devices for Indoor Pedestrian Navigation","volume":"6","author":"Zhuang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"68","article-title":"Design on Pseudolite Signal TransmitterBased on GPS Navigation System","volume":"46","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Radio Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25157","DOI":"10.3390\/s151025157","article-title":"Hyperbolic Positioning with Antenna Arrays and Multi-Channel Pseudolite for Indoor Localization","volume":"15","author":"Fujii","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Gan, X., Yu, B., Zhang, H., Li, S., Cheng, J., Liang, X., and Wang, B. (2019). An Innovation Fingerprint Location Algorithm for Indoor Positioning Based on Array Psedolite. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204420"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gan, X., Yu, B., Huang, L., Jia, R., Zhang, H., Sheng, C., Fan, G., and Wang, B. (2019). Doppler Differential Positioning Technology Using the BDS\/GPS Indoor Array Pseudolite System. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204580"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2020, January 21). Available online: http:\/\/www.techweb.com.cn\/tele\/2018-11-08\/2711349.shtml."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2020, January 23). Available online: https:\/\/cn.amazfit.com\/antelope.html."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, M., Song, Q., Gu, Y., Li, Y., and Zhou, Z. (2018). An Adaptive Zero Velocity Detection Algorithm Based on Multi-Sensor Fusion for a Pedestrian Navigation System. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103261"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2665678","article-title":"Adaptive Zero Velocity Update Based on Velocity Classification for Pedestrian Tracking","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463307004286","article-title":"Non-GPS navigation for security personnel and first responders","volume":"60","author":"Ojeda","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Navigat."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, R., Wang, Y., Yu, B., Gan, X., Jia, H., and Wang, B. (2020). Enhanced heuristic drift elimination with adaptive zero-velocity detection and heading correction algorithms for pedestrian navigation. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20040951"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2020, January 15). Available online: http:\/\/www.unicorecomm.com\/files\/PDF\/Ch\/HPL\/UB482_UserManual_Ch%20V2.0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2020, January 17). Available online: http:\/\/file.yizimg.com\/516728\/2019106-91831645.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdulrahim, K., Hide, C., Moore, T., and Hill, C. (2010, January 14\u201315). Aiding MEMS IMU with building heading for indoor pedestrian navigation. Proceedings of the 2010 Ubiquitous Positioning Indoor Navigation and Location Based Service, Kirkkonummi, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/UPINLBS.2010.5653986"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/6\/1791\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:11:01Z","timestamp":1760173861000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/6\/1791"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s20061791"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20061791","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,24]]}}}