{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T07:56:59Z","timestamp":1776844619600,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,27]],"date-time":"2020-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585267200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61773234"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61773234"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U1864203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U1864203"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018YFB0105000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFB0105000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Project of Tsinghua University and Toyota Joint Research Center for AI Technology of Automated Vehicle","award":["TT2018-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TT2018-02"]}]},{"name":"International Science and Technology Cooperation Program of China","award":["2016YFE0102200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFE0102200"]}]},{"name":"software developed in the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Program","award":["D171100005117002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D171100005117002"]}]},{"name":"software developed in the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Program","award":["Z181100005918001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z181100005918001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Real-time vehicle localization (i.e., position and orientation estimation in the world coordinate system) with high accuracy is the fundamental function of an intelligent vehicle (IV) system. In the process of commercialization of IVs, many car manufacturers attempt to avoid high-cost sensor systems (e.g., RTK GNSS and LiDAR) in favor of low-cost optical sensors such as cameras. The same cost-saving strategy also gives rise to an increasing number of vehicles equipped with High Definition (HD) maps. Rooted upon these existing technologies, this article presents the concept of Monocular Localization with Vector HD Map (MLVHM), a novel camera-based map-matching method that efficiently aligns semantic-level geometric features in-camera acquired frames against the vector HD map in order to achieve high-precision vehicle absolute localization with minimal cost. The semantic features are delicately chosen for the ease of map vector alignment as well as for the resiliency against occlusion and fluctuation in illumination. The effective data association method in MLVHM serves as the basis for the camera position estimation by minimizing feature re-projection errors, and the frame-to-frame motion fusion is further introduced for reliable localization results. Experiments have shown that MLVHM can achieve high-precision vehicle localization with an RMSE of 24 cm with no cumulative error. In addition, we use low-cost on-board sensors and light-weight HD maps to achieve or even exceed the accuracy of existing map-matching algorithms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20071870","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,1]],"date-time":"2020-04-01T03:44:13Z","timestamp":1585712653000},"page":"1870","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["Monocular Localization with Vector HD Map (MLVHM): A Low-Cost Method for Commercial IVs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0571-9156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhongyang","family":"Xiao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diange","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tuopu","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kun","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruidong","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22240","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2826041","article-title":"Technologies and solutions for location-based services in smart cities: Past, present, and future","volume":"6","author":"Usman","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-017-9338-1","article-title":"Intelligent and connected vehicles: Current status and future perspectives","volume":"61","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. 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