{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T17:50:03Z","timestamp":1781286603890,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,30]],"date-time":"2020-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585526400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST-108-2218-E-027-017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST-108-2218-E-027-017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, a head-mounted device was developed to track the gaze of the eyes and estimate the gaze point on the user\u2019s visual plane. To provide a cost-effective vision tracking solution, this head-mounted device is combined with a sized endoscope camera, infrared light, and mobile phone; the devices are also implemented via 3D printing to reduce costs. Based on the proposed image pre-processing techniques, the system can efficiently extract and estimate the pupil ellipse from the camera module. A 3D eye model was also developed to effectively locate eye gaze points from extracted eye images. In the experimental results, average accuracy, precision, and recall rates of the proposed system can achieve an average of over 97%, which can demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed system. This study can be widely used in the Internet of Things, virtual reality, assistive devices, and human-computer interaction applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20071917","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,1]],"date-time":"2020-04-01T03:44:13Z","timestamp":1585712653000},"page":"1917","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Gaze Tracking and Point Estimation Using Low-Cost Head-Mounted Devices"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Ko-Feng","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7717-9393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yen-Lin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chao-Wei","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kai-Yi","family":"Chin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Digital Humanities and Information Applications, Aletheia University, New Taipei City 25103, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chen-Han","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei 10608, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2011.09.006","article-title":"Visual tracking of robots in uncalibrated environments","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechatronics.2011.09.013","article-title":"Visual control with adaptive dynamical compensation for 3D target tracking by mobile manipulators","volume":"22","author":"Andaluz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mechatronics"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2017, August 23). 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