{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T04:57:37Z","timestamp":1782449857329,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,4]],"date-time":"2020-04-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585958400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["777222"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["777222"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A single-photon CMOS image sensor (CIS) design based on pinned photodiode (PPD) with multiple charge transfers and sampling is described. In the proposed pixel architecture, the photogenerated signal is sampled non-destructively multiple times and the results are averaged. Each signal measurement is statistically independent and by averaging, the electronic readout noise is reduced to a level where single photons can be distinguished reliably. A pixel design using this method was simulated in TCAD and several layouts were generated for a 180-nm CMOS image sensor process. Using simulations, the noise performance of the pixel was determined as a function of the number of samples, sense node capacitance, sampling rate and transistor characteristics. The strengths and limitations of the proposed design are discussed in detail, including the trade-off between noise performance and readout rate and the impact of charge transfer inefficiency (CTI). The projected performance of our first prototype device indicates that single-photon imaging is within reach and could enable ground-breaking performances in many scientific and industrial imaging applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072031","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,7]],"date-time":"2020-04-07T03:58:39Z","timestamp":1586231919000},"page":"2031","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Simulations and Design of a Single-Photon CMOS Imaging Pixel Using Multiple Non-Destructive Signal Sampling"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8412-3726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Konstantin D.","family":"Stefanov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Electronic Imaging, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5067-5944","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin J.","family":"Prest","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Electronic Imaging, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Downing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Strasse 2, D-85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7874-0445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Strasse 2, D-85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naidu","family":"Bezawada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"European Southern Observatory, Karl-Schwarzschild-Strasse 2, D-85748 Garching, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew D.","family":"Holland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Electronic Imaging, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seitz, P., and Theuwissen, A.J.P. 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