{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T13:20:15Z","timestamp":1778160015521,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":62,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]],"date-time":"2020-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1586476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The concrete filled pultrusion-GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer) tubular column (CFGC) is popular in hydraulic structures or regions with poor environmental conditions due to its excellent corrosion resistance. Considering the influence of concrete hydration heat, shrinkage, and creep, debonding may occur in the interface between the GFRP tube and the concrete, which will greatly reduce the cooperation of the GFRP tube and concrete, and will weaken the mechanical property of CFGC. This paper introduces an active monitoring method based on the piezoelectric transducer. In the active sensing approach, the smart aggregate (SA) embedded in the concrete acted as a driver to transmit a modulated stress wave, and the PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) patches attached on the outer surface of CFGC serve as sensors to receive signals and transfer them to the computer for saving. Two groups of experiments were designed with the different debonding areas and thicknesses. The artificial damage of CFGC was identified and located by comparing the value of the delay under pulse excitation and the difference of wavelet-based energy under sweep excitation, and the damage indexes were defined based on the wavelet packet energy to quantify the level of the interface damage. The results showed that the debonding damage area of CFGC can be identified effectively through the active monitoring method, and the damage index can accurately reflect the damage level of the interface of GFRP tube and concrete. Therefore, this method can be used to identify and evaluate the interface debonding of CFGC in real time. In addition, if the method can be combined with remote sensing technology, it can be used as a real-time remote sensing monitoring technology to provide a solution for interface health monitoring of CFGC.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20072149","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,13]],"date-time":"2020-04-13T10:41:52Z","timestamp":1586774512000},"page":"2149","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Monitoring of Interfacial Debonding of Concrete Filled Pultrusion-GFRP Tubular Column Based on Piezoelectric Smart Aggregate and Wavelet Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8837-6277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wenwei","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4551-303X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xia","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuntao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2010.11.017","article-title":"Testing and modeling of a novel FRP-encased steel\u2013concrete composite column","volume":"93","author":"Karimi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2006.06.017","article-title":"Hybrid FRP\u2013concrete\u2013steel tubular columns: Concept and behavior","volume":"21","author":"Teng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000121","article-title":"Stress-strain behavior of concrete in hybrid FRP-concrete-steel double-skin tubular columns","volume":"136","author":"Yu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Shi, C. (2016). Behavior of Hybrid Columns of Concrete-Filled Square Steel Tube with FRP-Confined Concrete Core under Axial Compression and Seismic Loading, Tsinghua University."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Yan, Y. (2017). Test of GFRP-Concrete-Steel Double Skin Tubular Short Columns under Axial Compression, Huaqiao University."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Liu, Y. (2014). The Experimental Study on GFRP-Concrete-Steel-Concrete Double-Skin Tubular Hybrid Columns under Axial Compression, Dalian University of Technology."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"21","article-title":"Application form of GFRP in civil engineering structure","volume":"27","author":"Peng","year":"2002","journal-title":"High Technol. Fibers Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.208","article-title":"Influence of cracks on chloride diffusivity in concrete: A five-phase mesoscale model approach","volume":"197","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2011.08.002","article-title":"Effects of debonding on circular CFST stub columns","volume":"69","author":"Xue","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/S0143-974X(02)00076-7","article-title":"Influence of concrete compaction on the strength of concrete-filled steel RHS columns","volume":"59","author":"Han","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"40","article-title":"Experimental research on debonding in concrete-filled steel tubes columns subjected to eccentric loading","volume":"97","author":"Xue","year":"2010","journal-title":"IABSE Symp. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.117-119.887","article-title":"Research on Mechanical Properties of Separation Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes Subjected to Eccentric Compression on Non-Separation Side","volume":"117\u2013119","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04016132","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001604","article-title":"Effects of Core Concrete Initial Imperfection on Performance of Eccentrically Loaded CFST Columns","volume":"142","author":"Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2014.11.053","article-title":"Ultrasonic and Electromagnetic Waves for Nondestructive Evaluation and Structural Health Monitoring","volume":"86","author":"Kundu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2005.08.017","article-title":"Damage imaging of reinforced concrete structures using electromagnetic migration algorithm","volume":"43","author":"Nojavan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"6128","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of ordinary portland cement concrete structures using X-ray diffraction","volume":"11","author":"Dhapekar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, W., Xu, C., Ho, S.C.M., Wang, B., and Song, G. (2017). Monitoring Concrete Deterioration Due to Reinforcement Corrosion by Integrating Acoustic Emission and FBG Strain Measurements. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17030657"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X14536010","article-title":"Modeling and analysis of Lamb wave propagation in a beam under lead zirconate titanate actuation and sensing","volume":"26","author":"Venugopal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, M., Li, W., Hei, C., and Song, G. (2016). Concrete infill monitoring in concrete-filled FRP tubes using a PZT-based ultrasonic time-of-flight method. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122083"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"90620R","article-title":"Development of optical equipment for ultrasonic guided wave structural health monitoring","volume":"9062","author":"Lin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Soc. Opt. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-016-0180-9","article-title":"Infrared thermography for civil structural assessment: Demonstrations with laboratory and field studies","volume":"6","author":"Hiasa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"057003","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa6ae8","article-title":"A load measuring anchor plate for rock bolt using fiber optic sensor","volume":"26","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, C., Wang, G., Rice, J.A., and Li, C. (2012). Interferometric Radar Sensor with Active Transponders for Signal Boosting and Clutter Rejection in Structural Health Monitoring, IMS.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSYM.2012.6259700"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2007.07.002","article-title":"A far-field airborne radar NDT technique for detecting debonding in GFRP\u2013retrofitted concrete structures","volume":"41","author":"Yu","year":"2008","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75033","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ab1f27","article-title":"Quantitative Evaluation of Debond in Concrete-Filled Steel Tubular Member (CFSTM) Using Piezoceramic Transducers and Ultrasonic Head Wave Amplitude","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/13\/1\/017","article-title":"Wavelet-based active sensing for delamination detection in composite structures","volume":"13","author":"Sohn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1016\/j.finel.2003.03.001","article-title":"Wave propagation in plate structures for crack detection","volume":"40","author":"Krawczuk","year":"2004","journal-title":"Finite Elem. Anal. Des."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/12\/6\/007","article-title":"Multi-field variational formulations and related finite elements for piezoelectric shells","volume":"12","author":"Lammering","year":"2003","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1006\/jsvi.1994.1104","article-title":"Optimal placement of piezoelectric actuators in adaptive truss structures","volume":"171","author":"Lammering","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035018","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/19\/3\/035018","article-title":"Selective Lamb mode excitation by piezoelectric coaxial ring actuators","volume":"19","author":"Glushkov","year":"2010","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X15586452","article-title":"Smart concretes and structures: A review","volume":"26","author":"Han","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065002","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/22\/6\/065002","article-title":"Exploratory study on water seepage monitoring of concrete structures using piezoceramic based smart aggregates","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1002\/eqe.307","article-title":"Structural impedance-based damage diagnosis by piezo-transducers","volume":"32","author":"Bhalla","year":"2003","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Struct. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.3390\/s8010327","article-title":"Sensitivity of PZT Impedance Sensors for Damage Detection of Concrete Structures","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2010.10.006","article-title":"Impedance-based wireless debonding condition monitoring of CFRP laminated concrete structures","volume":"44","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Chen, M. (2014). Research on Large Multi-Cavity Irregular Steel Pipe Column Defect Detection Based on Piezoelectric Impedance, Hunan University."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"20","article-title":"Identification of damage to concrete structures using piezoelectric intelligent aggregates","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Concrete"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Zhao, X. (2008). Structural Health Monitoring and Damage Diagnosis Based on Piezoelectric Transducers, Dalian University of Technology."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2018.06.002","article-title":"Wave propagation based monitoring of concrete curing using piezoelectric materials: Review and path forward","volume":"99","author":"Lim","year":"2018","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfatigue.2018.04.002","article-title":"Prognosis of low-strain fatigue induced damage in reinforced concrete structures using embedded piezo-transducers","volume":"113","author":"Bhalla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Fatigue"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.02.002","article-title":"Numerical investigations on energy harvesting potential of thin PZT patches adhesively bonded on RC structures","volume":"241","author":"Kaur","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2018.01.007","article-title":"Vibration Energy Harvesting Based Monitoring of an Operational Bridge Undergoing Forced Vibration and Train Passage","volume":"106","author":"Cahill","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"108","article-title":"Health monitoring of a concrete structure using piezoceramic materials\/\/Smart Structures and Materials 2005: Sensors and Smart Structures Technologies for Civil, Mechanical, and Aerospace Systems","volume":"5765","author":"Song","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. Soc. Opt. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/15\/2\/010","article-title":"Health monitoring and rehabilitation of a concrete structure using intelligent materials","volume":"15","author":"Song","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/15\/6\/038","article-title":"Concrete early-age strength monitoring using embedded piezoelectric transducers","volume":"15","author":"Gu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"117","article-title":"Early age strength monitoring of concrete structures using embedded smart piezoelectric transducers","volume":"6179","author":"Gu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/16\/4\/003","article-title":"Concrete structural health monitoring using embedded piezoceramic transducers","volume":"16","author":"Song","year":"2007","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"033001","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/17\/3\/033001","article-title":"Smart aggregates: Multi-functional sensors for concrete structures\u2014A tutorial and a review","volume":"17","author":"Song","year":"2008","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"69","article-title":"Experimental study on peeling damage identification of CFRP reinforced concrete structures","volume":"03","author":"Shi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. and Management"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2011.07.029","article-title":"Active interface debonding detection of a concrete-filled steel tube with piezoelectric technologies using wavelet packet analysis","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"175","article-title":"Grouting compactness monitoring of concrete-filled steel tube arch bridge model using piezoceramic-based transducers","volume":"20","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5208","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2790902","article-title":"Real-Time Monitoring of Soil Compaction Using Piezoceramic-Based Embeddable Transducers and Wavelet Packet Analysis","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Huang, Y., and Zheng, Y. (2018). A Feasibility Study on Timber Damage Detection Using Piezoceramic-Transducer-Enabled Active Sensing. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051563"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Li, Y., Huang, Y., Jiang, J., and Ho, S.-C.M. (2018). A Feasibility Study on Timber Moisture Monitoring Using Piezoceramic Transducer-Enabled Active Sensing. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18093100"},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"165","article-title":"Research and application of piezoelectric intelligent sensing structure in civil engineering","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Yan, L. (2013). Research on Damage Monitoring of Multi-Cavity CFST Columns Based on Piezoelectric Transducers, Hunan University."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2013.01.017","article-title":"Recent advances in time\u2013frequency analysis methods for machinery fault diagnosis: A review with application examples","volume":"38","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1109\/34.192463","article-title":"A theory for multiresolution signal decomposition: The wavelet representation","volume":"11","author":"Mallat","year":"1989","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-1354(02)00160-6","article-title":"A review of process fault detection and diagnosis: Part I: Quantitative model-based methods","volume":"27","author":"Venkatasubramanian","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921706067741","article-title":"Wavelet transform for structural health monitoring: A compendium of uses and features","volume":"5","author":"Taha","year":"2006","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"833","article-title":"Experimental study on stress wave attenuation characteristics of piezoelectric transducer concrete structures","volume":"26","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Shenyang Jianzhu Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"536","article-title":"Recent Advancements in the Electro-Mechanical (E\/M) Impedance Method for Structural Health Monitoring and NDE","volume":"3329","author":"Giurgiutiu","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/7\/2149\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:17:21Z","timestamp":1760174241000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/7\/2149"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]]},"references-count":62,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s20072149"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20072149","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,10]]}}}