{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T00:35:34Z","timestamp":1760402134273,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,15]],"date-time":"2020-04-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1586908800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2019YFB2102403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFB2102403"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Resource constraints have prevented comprehensive cryptography and multifactor authentication in numerous Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity scenarios. Existing IoT systems generally adopt lightweight security protocols that lead to compromise and privacy leakage. Edge computing enables better access control and privacy protection, furthermore, blockchain architecture has achieved a trusted store of value by open-source and distributed consensus mechanisms. To embrace these new paradigms, we propose a scheme that employs one-time association multitasking proofs for peer to local authentication (OTMP-P2L). The scheme chooses relevant nondeterministic polynomial (NP) problem tasks, and manages localized trust and anonymity by using smart devices such as phones and pads, thereby enabling IoT devices to autonomously perform consensus validation with an enhanced message authentication code. This nested code is a one-time zero-knowledge proof that comprises multiple logic verification arguments. To increase diversity and reduce the workload of each one, these arguments are chained by a method that establishes some of the inputs of the following task from the output of previous tasks. We implemented a smart lock system and confirmed that the scheme outperforms IoT authentication methods. The result demonstrates superior flexibility through dynamic difficulty strategies and succinct non-interactive peer-to-peer (P2P) verification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082231","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,15]],"date-time":"2020-04-15T09:19:50Z","timestamp":1586942390000},"page":"2231","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Trustworthiness and a Zero Leakage OTMP-P2L Scheme Based on NP Problems for Edge Security Access"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8014-8050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daoqi","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Trustworthy Distributed Computing and Service, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), Beijing 100876, China"},{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaofeng","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Trustworthy Distributed Computing and Service, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), Beijing 100876, China"},{"name":"College of Cyberspace Security, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yueming","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Trustworthy Distributed Computing and Service, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), Beijing 100876, China"},{"name":"College of Cyberspace Security, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (BUPT), Beijing 100876, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2579198","article-title":"Edge computing: Vision and challenges","volume":"3","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1109\/CC.2015.7224698","article-title":"Steiner tree based optimal resource caching scheme in fog computing","volume":"12","author":"Su","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66673","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2878879","article-title":"A novel utility based resource management scheme in vehicular social edge computing","volume":"6","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102080","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2020.102080","article-title":"Providing secure and reliable communication for next generation networks in smart cities","volume":"56","author":"Otoum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Panetta, K. (2019, February 01). Gartner\u2019s Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2017. Available online: https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/smarterwithgartner\/gartners-top-10-technology-trends-2017\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Review, M.T. (2019, February 01). 10 Breakthrough Technologies. Available online: https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/lists\/technologies\/2018\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69294","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2879988","article-title":"Optimization-oriented resource allocation management for vehicular fog computing","volume":"6","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Nakamoto, S. (2019, February 01). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. Available online: https:\/\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Z.K., Cho, M.C.Y., Wang, C.W., Hsu, C.W., Chen, C.K., and Shieh, S. (2014, January 17\u201319). IoT security: Ongoing challenges and research opportunities. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 7th international conference on service-oriented computing and applications, Matsue, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/SOCA.2014.58"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1109\/MITP.2017.3680960","article-title":"Authentication and Authorization for the Internet of Things","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"IT Prof."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luk, M., Perrig, A., and Whillock, B. (2006, January 30). Seven cardinal properties of sensor network broadcast authentication. Proceedings of the fourth ACM workshop on Security of ad hoc and sensor networks, Alexandria, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1180345.1180364"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3693","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2266116","article-title":"A lightweight multicast authentication mechanism for small scale IoT applications","volume":"13","author":"Yao","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-018-1267-2","article-title":"Hypergraph clustering model-based association analysis of DDOS attacks in fog computing intrusion detection system","volume":"2018","author":"An","year":"2018","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, X., Zhou, X., L\u00fc, X., Lin, F., and Yang, L. (2018). Sample selected extreme learning machine based intrusion detection in fog computing and MEC. Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput., 2018.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/7472095"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1109\/MCE.2018.2851723","article-title":"Fair resource allocation in an intrusion-detection system for edge computing: Ensuring the security of Internet of Things devices","volume":"7","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Consum. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.2020.01.006","article-title":"A novel secure data transmission scheme in industrial internet of things","volume":"17","author":"Hui","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chin. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Courtois, N.T., Grajek, M., and Naik, R. (2014). Optimizing SHA256 in Bitcoin Mining. International Conference on Cryptography and Security Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-44893-9_12"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008354106356","article-title":"The state of elliptic curve cryptography","volume":"19","author":"Koblitz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Des. Codes Cryptogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.32604\/cmc.2019.03863","article-title":"A Blockchain-Based Authentication Protocol for WLAN Mesh Security Access","volume":"58","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"CMC"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.32604\/cmc.2019.05936","article-title":"Research on Architecture of Risk Assessment System Based on Block Chain","volume":"61","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"CMC"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.32604\/cmc.2019.06279","article-title":"A New Anti-Quantum Proxy Blind Signature for Blockchain-Enabled Internet of Things","volume":"61","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"CMC"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69524","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2917277","article-title":"Air Quality Forecasting Based on Gated Recurrent Long Short Term Memory Model in Internet of Things","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, T., Bhuiyan, M.Z.A., Wang, G., Qi, L., Wu, J., and Hayajneh, T. (2020). Preserving Balance between Privacy and Data Integrity in Edge-Assisted Internet of Things. IEEE Internet Things J.","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2951687"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900103","article-title":"Blockchain for managing heterogeneous internet of things: A perspective architecture","volume":"34","author":"Tseng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1137\/0218012","article-title":"The knowledge complexity of interactive proof systems","volume":"18","author":"Goldwasser","year":"1989","journal-title":"SIAM J. Comput."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gervais, A., Karame, G.O., W\u00fcst, K., Glykantzis, V., Ritzdorf, H., and Capkun, S. (2016, January 24\u201328). On the security and performance of proof of work blockchains. Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security, Vienna, Austria.","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978341"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1145\/2794093","article-title":"Preaveraging and carry propagate approaches to side-channel analysis of HMAC-SHA256","volume":"15","author":"Gebotys","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Embedded Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gennaro, R., Gentry, C., Parno, B., and Raykova, M. (2013). Quadratic span programs and succinct NIZKs without PCPs. Annual International Conference on the Theory and Applications of Cryptographic Techniques, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-38348-9_37"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1007\/s00453-016-0221-0","article-title":"Scalable zero knowledge via cycles of elliptic curves","volume":"79","author":"Chiesa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Algorithmica"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Zcash (2019, February 01). A Privacy-Protecting, Digital Currency. Available online: https:\/\/z.cash\/technology\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, D., Lu, Y., Du, X., and Gan, J. (2018, January 28\u201330). Offline Authentication Scheme Based on Blockchain Technology for Smart Lock. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Telecommunications and Communication Engineering; Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3291842.3291893"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/8\/2231\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:30:48Z","timestamp":1760362248000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/8\/2231"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,15]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s20082231"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20082231","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,15]]}}}