{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:51:30Z","timestamp":1760237490164,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,15]],"date-time":"2020-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1589500800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000780","name":"European Commission","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["675332 BitMap"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["675332 BitMap"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000780","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Near-infrared diffuse optical tomography is a non-invasive photonics-based imaging technology suited to functional brain imaging applications. Recent developments have proved that it is possible to build a compact time-domain diffuse optical tomography system based on silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) detectors. The system presented in this paper was equipped with the same eight SiPM probe-hosted detectors, but was upgraded with six injection fibers to shine the sample at several points. Moreover, an automatic switch was included enabling a complete measurement to be performed in less than one second. Further, the system was provided with a dual-wavelength (670    n      m    and 820    n      m   ) light source to quantify the oxy- and deoxy-hemoglobin concentration evolution in the tissue. This novel system was challenged against a solid phantom experiment, and two in-vivo tests, namely arm occlusion and motor cortex brain activation. The results show that the tomographic system makes it possible to follow the evolution of brain activation over time with a 1   s   -resolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20102815","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,15]],"date-time":"2020-05-15T10:53:59Z","timestamp":1589540039000},"page":"2815","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Real-Time Dual-Wavelength Time-Resolved Diffuse Optical Tomography System for Functional Brain Imaging Based on Probe-Hosted Silicon Photomultipliers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Orive-Miguel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CEA, LETI, MINATEC Campus, F-38054 Grenoble, France"},{"name":"University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-Lab, 38000 Grenoble, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3028-3705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Di Sieno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anurag","family":"Behera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6637-940X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edoardo","family":"Ferocino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Davide","family":"Contini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7087-1002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurent","family":"Condat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Visual Computing Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2944-5498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lionel","family":"Herv\u00e9","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEA, LETI, MINATEC Campus, F-38054 Grenoble, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6538-7865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J\u00e9r\u00f4me","family":"Mars","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-Lab, 38000 Grenoble, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6878-8936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Torricelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"},{"name":"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2261-2089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Pifferi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"},{"name":"Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Fotonica e Nanotecnologie, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2783-6217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Dalla Mora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Fisica, 20133 Milano, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"12","article-title":"High-resolution optical functional mapping of the human somatosensory cortex","volume":"2","author":"Koch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Front. Neuroenerg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2014.06.012","article-title":"Mapping cortical haemodynamics during neonatal seizures using diffuse optical tomography: A case study","volume":"5","author":"Singh","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.1.000391","article-title":"Instrumentation and design of a frequency-domain diffuse optical tomography imager for breast cancer detection","volume":"1","author":"Pogue","year":"1997","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024020","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3103325","article-title":"Differentiation of benign and malignant breast tumors by in-vivo three-dimensional parallel-plate diffuse optical tomography","volume":"14","author":"Choe","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2006.10.028","article-title":"Whole body small animal examination with a diffuse optical tomography instrument","volume":"571","author":"Koenig","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A Accel. Spectrom. Detect. Assoc. Equip."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dot, A., Planat-Chr\u00e9tien, A., Perriollat, M., Berger, M., Lartizien, R., Henry, M., Bettega, G., and Coll, J.L. (2019, January 23\u201327). Blood oxygenation in buried flaps, a bi-layer reconstruction. Proceedings of the European Conference on Biomedical Optics, Munich, Germany.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2527176"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1086207","article-title":"Time-Resolved Optical Monitoring to detect and identify deep flaps (Conference Presentation)","volume":"Volume 10862","author":"Berger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Molecular-Guided Surgery: Molecules, Devices, and Applications V"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"025004","article-title":"Toward noninvasive assessment of flap viability with time-resolved diffuse optical tomography: A preclinical test on rats","volume":"21","author":"Bettega","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"076701","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/73\/7\/076701","article-title":"Diffuse optics for tissue monitoring and tomography","volume":"73","author":"Durduran","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rep. Prog. Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2014.107","article-title":"Mapping distributed brain function and networks with diffuse optical tomography","volume":"8","author":"Eggebrecht","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.23.000882","article-title":"Nonuniqueness in diffusion-based optical tomography","volume":"23","author":"Arridge","year":"1998","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091310","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.21.9.091310","article-title":"New frontiers in time-domain diffuse optics, a review","volume":"21","author":"Pifferi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/46\/3\/320","article-title":"Determining changes in NIR absorption using a layered model of the human head","volume":"46","author":"Steinbrink","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"078101","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.95.078101","article-title":"Time-resolved reflectance at null source-detector separation: Improving contrast and resolution in diffuse optical imaging","volume":"95","author":"Torricelli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"053105","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4875593","article-title":"MONSTIR II: A 32-channel, multispectral, time-resolved optical tomography system for neonatal brain imaging","volume":"85","author":"Cooper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3595","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1149965","article-title":"Multichannel time-resolved optical tomographic imaging system","volume":"70","author":"Eda","year":"1999","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.7785\/tcrt.2012.500217","article-title":"Time-resolved optical mammography and its preliminary clinical results","volume":"10","author":"Ueda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Technol. Cancer Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1203","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.44.L1203","article-title":"Reflectance diffuse optical tomography: Its application to human brain mapping","volume":"44","author":"Ueda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.4.001351","article-title":"Time-resolved diffuse optical tomography using fast-gated single-photon avalanche diodes","volume":"4","author":"Puszka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3596","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.6.003596","article-title":"Fast single photon avalanche photodiode-based time-resolved diffuse optical tomography scanner","volume":"6","author":"Mu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.35.001956","article-title":"Avalanche photodiodes and quenching circuits for single-photon detection","volume":"35","author":"Cova","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13937","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.23.013937","article-title":"Fast silicon photomultiplier improves signal harvesting and reduces complexity in time-domain diffuse optics","volume":"23","author":"Martinenghi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.4.000659","article-title":"Silicon photomultipliers for improved detection of low light levels in miniature near-infrared spectroscopy instruments","volume":"4","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maira, G., Chiarelli, A.M., Brafa, S., Libertino, S., Fallica, G., Merla, A., and Lombardo, S. (2020). Imaging System Based on Silicon Photomultipliers and Light Emitting Diodes for Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10031068"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.000562","article-title":"Next-generation frequency domain diffuse optical imaging systems using silicon photomultipliers","volume":"44","author":"Kitsmiller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"109483V","article-title":"Feasibility study of silicon photomultiplier based frequency domain diffuse optical tomography","volume":"Volume 10948","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medical Imaging 2019: Physics of Medical Imaging"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.21.11.116002","article-title":"Time-domain diffuse optical tomography using silicon photomultipliers: Feasibility study","volume":"21","author":"Pifferi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farina, A., Tagliabue, S., Di Sieno, L., Martinenghi, E., Durduran, T., Arridge, S., Martelli, F., Torricelli, A., Pifferi, A., and Dalla Mora, A. (2017). Time-domain functional diffuse optical tomography system based on fiber-free silicon photomultipliers. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7121235"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"045004","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.3.4.045004","article-title":"Probe-hosted silicon photomultipliers for time-domain functional near-infrared spectroscopy: Phantom and in vivo tests","volume":"3","author":"Re","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.05.106","article-title":"Time domain functional NIRS imaging for human brain mapping","volume":"85","author":"Torricelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5978","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.51.005978","article-title":"Time-domain diffuse optical tomography processing by using the Mellin\u2013Laplace transform","volume":"51","author":"Puszka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.9.000755","article-title":"High throughput detection chain for time domain optical mammography","volume":"9","author":"Ferocino","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4679","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.9.004679","article-title":"Crucial aspects for the use of silicon photomultiplier devices in continuous wave functional near-infrared spectroscopy","volume":"9","author":"Maira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121304","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.20.12.121304","article-title":"Mechanically switchable solid inhomogeneous phantom for performance tests in diffuse imaging and spectroscopy","volume":"20","author":"Pifferi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"086012","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.19.8.086012","article-title":"Performance assessment of time-domain optical brain imagers, part 2: nEUROPt protocol","volume":"19","author":"Wabnitz","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorenzo, J.R. (2012). Principles of Diffuse Light Propagation: Light Propagation in Tissues with Applications in Biology and Medicine, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789814293860"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3037","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.43.003037","article-title":"Time-resolved multidistance near-infrared spectroscopy of the adult head: Intracerebral and extracerebral absorption changes from moments of distribution of times of flight of photons","volume":"43","author":"Liebert","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orive-Miguel, D., Herv\u00e9, L., Condat, L., and Mars, J. (2019). Improving Localization of Deep Inclusions in Time-Resolved Diffuse Optical Tomography. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9245468"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"036008","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.21.3.036008","article-title":"Combining energy and Laplacian regularization to accurately retrieve the depth of brain activity of diffuse optical tomographic data","volume":"21","author":"Chiarelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4018","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.15.004018","article-title":"Improving depth resolution of diffuse optical tomography with a layer-based sigmoid adjustment method","volume":"15","author":"Zhao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2950","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.38.002950","article-title":"Spatially variant regularization improves diffuse optical tomography","volume":"38","author":"Pogue","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1097\/01.WCB.0000076703.71231.BB","article-title":"Diffuse optical tomography of cerebral blood flow, oxygenation, and metabolism in rat during focal ischemia","volume":"23","author":"Culver","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.35.000429","article-title":"Development of a compensation algorithm for accurate depth localization in diffuse optical tomography","volume":"35","author":"Niu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046005","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3462986","article-title":"Comprehensive investigation of three-dimensional diffuse optical tomography with depth compensation algorithm","volume":"15","author":"Niu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4346","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.7.004346","article-title":"Quantification in time-domain diffuse optical tomography using Mellin-Laplace transforms","volume":"7","author":"Zouaoui","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buxton, R.B. (2009). Introduction to Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Principles and Techniques, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511605505"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1548","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20628","article-title":"Estimating cerebral oxygen metabolism from fMRI with a dynamic multicompartment Windkessel model","volume":"30","author":"Huppert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frostig, R.D. (2009). In Vivo Optical Imaging of Brain Function, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420076851"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015001","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.4.1.015001","article-title":"Comparison of group-level, source localized activity for simultaneous functional near-infrared spectroscopy-magnetoencephalography and simultaneous fNIRS-fMRI during parametric median nerve stimulation","volume":"4","author":"Huppert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.07.013","article-title":"Modeling the hemodynamic response to brain activation","volume":"23","author":"Buxton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.10026","article-title":"Simultaneous measurements of cerebral oxygenation changes during brain activation by near-infrared spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy young and elderly subjects","volume":"16","author":"Colier","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4275","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.7.004275","article-title":"Functional imaging of the human brain using a modular, fibre-less, high-density diffuse optical tomography system","volume":"7","author":"Chitnis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4927(98)00023-7","article-title":"Hemispheric control of motor function: A whole brain echo planar fMRI study","volume":"83","author":"Mattay","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(98)00150-5","article-title":"Modulation of ipsilateral motor cortex in man during unimanual finger movements of different complexities","volume":"244","author":"Tinazzi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor, D. (2012). Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting, Academic Press."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/10\/2815\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:29:08Z","timestamp":1760174948000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/10\/2815"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,15]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s20102815"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20102815","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,15]]}}}