{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T15:13:42Z","timestamp":1772032422049,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,21]],"date-time":"2020-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1590019200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 108-2119-M-011-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 108-2119-M-011-001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education, Taiwan","award":["Taiwan Building Technology Center from the Featured Areas Research Center Program"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Taiwan Building Technology Center from the Featured Areas Research Center Program"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, the measured accelerations of a single smartphone were used to provide an earthquake early warning system. In the presented system, after the smartphone is triggered, the triggering event is then classified as an earthquake event or not. Once an earthquake event is detected, the peak ground acceleration is then predicted every second until 10 s after the trigger. These predictions are made by the neural network classifier and predictor embedded in the smartphone, and an alert can be issued if a large peak ground acceleration is predicted. The proposed system is unique among approaches that use crowdsourcing ideas for earthquake early warning because the proposed system provides on-site earthquake early warning. In general, the accuracy rates of the earthquake classifications and peak ground acceleration predictions of the system were quite high according to the results of large amounts of earthquake and non-earthquake data. More specifically, according to said earthquake data, 96.9% of the issued alerts would be correct and 61.9% of the earthquakes that exceeded the threshold would have resulted in an alert being issued before the arrival of the peak ground acceleration. Among the false negative cases, approximate 97.8% would occur because of negative lead time. Using the shake table tests of worldwide and Meinong earthquake datasets, the proposed approach is confirmed to be quite promising.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20102928","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,21]],"date-time":"2020-05-21T11:31:18Z","timestamp":1590060678000},"page":"2928","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["On-Site Earthquake Early Warning Using Smartphones"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3279-8996","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ting-Yu","family":"Hsu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei 10607, Taiwan"}]},{"given":"C. P.","family":"Nieh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei 10607, Taiwan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Cooper, J.D. (San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, 1868). Letter to editor, San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soildyn.2010.07.007","article-title":"Earthquake early warning: Concepts, method and physical grounds","volume":"31","author":"Satriano","year":"2011","journal-title":"Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1785\/gssrl.80.5.682","article-title":"The status of earthquake early warning around the world: An introductory overview","volume":"80","author":"Allen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-earth-053018-060457","article-title":"Earthquake Early Warning: Advances, Scientific Challenges, and Societal Needs","volume":"47","author":"Allen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaq0504","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aaq0504","article-title":"The limits of earthquake early warning: Timeliness of ground motion estimates","volume":"4","author":"Minson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggy470","article-title":"On-site earthquake early warning: A partially non-ergodic perspective from the site effects point of view","volume":"216","author":"Spallarossa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1785\/0120180116","article-title":"S- and P-Wave Spectral Ratios for On-Site Earthquake Early Warning in Japan","volume":"109","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chamoli, B.P., Kumar, A., Chen, D.Y., Gairola, A., Jakka, R.S., Pandey, B., Kumar, P., and Rathore, G. (2019). A prototype earthquake early warning system for northern India. J. Earthq. Eng., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1080\/13632469.2019.1625828"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL076118","article-title":"Real-time detection of rupture development: Earthquake early warning using P waves from growing ruptures","volume":"45","author":"Kodera","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2003.11.003","article-title":"Feed-Forward Control of Active Variable Stiffness Systems for Mitigating Seismic Hazard in Structures","volume":"26","author":"Pnevmatikos","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"667","article-title":"New strategy for controlling structures collapse against earthquakes","volume":"4","author":"Pnevmatikos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Burke, J., Estrin, D., Hansen, M., Parker, A., Ramanathan, N., Reddy, S., and Srivastava, M. (2006). Participatory sensing. Workshop on World-Sensor-Web (WSW) at SenSys, ACM."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1500036","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500036","article-title":"Crowdsourced earthquake early warning","volume":"1","author":"Minson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1785\/0120150354","article-title":"The earthquake network project: Toward a crowdsourced smartphone-based earthquake early warning system","volume":"106","author":"Finazzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1007\/s00477-016-1240-8","article-title":"A statistical approach to crowdsourced smartphone-based earthquake early warning systems","volume":"31","author":"Finazzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stochast. Environ. Res. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-019-02337-7","article-title":"The MyShake Platform: A Global Vision for Earthquake Early Warning","volume":"177","author":"Allen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9588","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL070955","article-title":"Myshake: Initial observations from a global smartphone seismic network","volume":"43","author":"Kong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Dashti, S., Reilly, J.D., Bray, J.D., Bayen, A., Glaser, S., and Mari, E. (2011). iShake: Using Personal Devices to Deliver Rapid Semi-Qualitative Earthquake Shaking Information, University of California."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2906","DOI":"10.1785\/0120120287","article-title":"Suitability of low-cost three-axis MEMS accelerometers in strong-motion seismology: Tests on the LIS331DLH (iPhone) accelerometer","volume":"103","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1785\/BSSA0680051521","article-title":"Automatic earthquake recognition and timing from single traces","volume":"68","author":"Allen","year":"1978","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soildyn.2013.03.001","article-title":"Rapid on-site peak ground acceleration estimation based on support vector regression and P-wave features in Taiwan","volume":"49","author":"Hsu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soil Dynam. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8954","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL069372","article-title":"Performance of the NCREE\u2019s on-site warning system during the 5 February 2016 Mw 6.53 Meinong earthquake","volume":"43","author":"Hsu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6001","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL078079","article-title":"Comparing the performance of the NEEWS earthquake early warning system against the CWB system during the 6 February 2018 Mw 6.2 Hualien earthquake","volume":"45","author":"Hsu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1785\/0120020097","article-title":"Relationship between peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, and intensity in Taiwan","volume":"93","author":"Wu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5561","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JB014025","article-title":"How \u201cgood\u201d are real-time ground motion predictions from Earthquake Early Warning systems?","volume":"122","author":"Meier","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/10\/2928\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:31:13Z","timestamp":1760175073000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/10\/2928"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,21]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s20102928"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20102928","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,21]]}}}