{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T18:09:37Z","timestamp":1775326177411,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,24]],"date-time":"2020-06-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1592956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper focuses on ultra-reliable low-latency Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X) communications able to meet the extreme requirements of high Levels of Automation (LoA) use cases. We introduce a system architecture and processing algorithms for the alignment of highly collimated V2X beams based either on millimeter-Wave (mmW) or Free-Space Optics (FSO). Beam-based V2X communications mainly suffer from blockage and pointing misalignment issues. This work focuses on the latter case, which is addressed by proposing a V2X architecture that enables a sensor-aided beam-tracking strategy to counteract the detrimental effect of vibrations and tilting dynamics. A parallel low-rate, low-latency, and reliable control link, in fact, is used to exchange data on vehicle kinematics (i.e., position and orientation) that assists the beam-pointing along the line-of-sight between V2X transceivers (i.e., the dominant multipath component for mmW, or the direct link for FSO). This link can be based on sub-6 GHz V2X communication, as in 5G frequency range 1 (FR1). Performance assessments are carried out to validate the robustness of the proposed methodology in coping with misalignment induced by vehicle dynamics. Numerical results show that highly directional mmW and\/or FSO communications are promising candidates for massive data-rate vehicular communications even in high mobility scenarios.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123573","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,24]],"date-time":"2020-06-24T08:54:50Z","timestamp":1592988890000},"page":"3573","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Sensor-Aided V2X Beam Tracking for Connected Automated Driving: Distributed Architecture and Processing Algorithms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5442-6507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mattia","family":"Brambilla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Combi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5787-5383","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Matera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dario","family":"Tagliaferri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Monica","family":"Nicoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Ingegneria Gestionale, Politecnico di Milano, 20156 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7047-2455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Umberto","family":"Spagnolini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2013.2277737","article-title":"A Survey of Traffic Control With Vehicular Communications","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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