{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T21:12:24Z","timestamp":1770153144134,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]],"date-time":"2020-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Project of China","award":["2019YFB1600700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019YFB1600700"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51878058"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51878058"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007128","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Shaanxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019JZ-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019JZ-02"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007128","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Damage detection of highway bridges is a significant part of structural heath monitoring. Conventional accelerometers or strain gauges utilized for damage detection have many shortcomings, especially their monitoring gauge length being too short, which would result in poor damage detection results. Under this circumstance, long-gauge FBG sensors as a novel optical sensor were developed to measure the macro-strain response of the structure. Based on this sensor, many derived damage detection methods were proposed. These methods exhibit various characteristics and have not been systematically compared. As a result, it is difficult to evaluate the state of the art and also leads to confusion for users to select. Therefore, a strict comparative study on three representative methods using long-gauge FBG was carried out. First, these methods\u2019 theoretical backgrounds and formats were reformulated and unified for better comparison. Then, based on validated vehicle\u2013bridge coupling simulation, these methods\u2019 performances were tested through a series of parametric studies including various damage scenarios, vehicle types, speeds, road roughness and noise levels. The precision and reliability of three methods have been thoroughly studied and compared.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133623","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,29]],"date-time":"2020-06-29T11:17:17Z","timestamp":1593429437000},"page":"3623","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Comparative Study of Damage Detection Methods Based on Long-Gauge FBG for Highway Bridges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Shi-Zhi","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Highway College, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710064, China"}]},{"given":"De-Cheng","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures of the Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}]},{"given":"Wan-Shui","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Highway College, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710064, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2006.1925","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of civil infrastructure","volume":"365","author":"Brownjohn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-016-0168-5","article-title":"Vibration-based damage detection techniques used for health monitoring of structures: A review","volume":"6","author":"Das","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Civil. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1006\/mssp.1999.1249","article-title":"Reference-based stochastic subspace identification for output-only modal analysis","volume":"13","author":"Peeters","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2014.10.007","article-title":"Identification of bridge mode shapes using Short Time Frequency Domain Decomposition of the responses measured in a passing vehicle","volume":"81","author":"Malekjafarian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.02.066","article-title":"Damage localization of beam structures using mode shape extracted from moving vehicle response","volume":"121","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-0296(96)00149-6","article-title":"Detection of structural damage through changes in frequency: A review","volume":"19","author":"Salawu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1177\/058310249803000201","article-title":"A summary review of vibration-based damage identification methods","volume":"30","author":"Doebling","year":"1998","journal-title":"Shock Vib. Dig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1898","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9445(2005)131:12(1898)","article-title":"Damage identification using modal data: Experiences on a prestressed concrete bridge","volume":"131","author":"Huth","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2005.07.036","article-title":"Assessment of vibration-based damage identification techniques","volume":"292","author":"Alvandi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2016.04.057","article-title":"Modal-parameter identification and vibration-based damage detection of a damaged steel truss bridge","volume":"122","author":"Chang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921711414233","article-title":"Development of method for in-service crack detection based on distributed fiber optic sensors","volume":"11","author":"Glisic","year":"2012","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921708094789","article-title":"Long-term Structural Health Monitoring of a Multi-girder Steel Composite Bridge Using Strain Data","volume":"8","author":"Cardini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921712451955","article-title":"Nonparametric analysis of structural health monitoring data for identification and localization of changes: Concept, lab, and real-life studies","volume":"11","author":"Catbas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2009.11.002","article-title":"Hypersensitivity of strain-based indicators for structural damage identification: A review","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"e122304","article-title":"Comparison between point and long-gage FBG-based strain sensors during a railway bridge load test","volume":"53","author":"Rinaudo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0150151","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa9bbe","article-title":"Prestressing force monitoring method for a box girder through distributed long-gauge FBG sensors","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrias, A., Casas, J.R., and Villalba, S. (2016). A Review of Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050748"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4152","DOI":"10.3390\/s110404152","article-title":"Recent Progress in Brillouin Scattering Based Fiber Sensors","volume":"11","author":"Bao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0850348","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa7973","article-title":"Deflection monitoring for a box girder based on a modified conjugate beam method","volume":"26","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921706072078","article-title":"Development of distributed long-gage fiber optic sensing system for structural health monitoring","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, B., Lu, H., Chen, B., and Gao, Z. (2017). Study on Finite Element Model Updating in Highway Bridge Static Loading Test Using Spatially-Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071657"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2019.04.095","article-title":"Development of a bridge weigh-in-motion method considering the presence of multiple vehicles","volume":"191","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"040180639","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001283","article-title":"Development of a Bridge Weigh-in-Motion System Based on Long-Gauge Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04020023","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001542","article-title":"Multi-cross reference method for highway bridge damage identification based on long-gauge fiber Bragg grating sensors","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.03.022","article-title":"Damage detection of highway bridges based on long-gauge strain response under stochastic traffic flow","volume":"127","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2344","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X16629571","article-title":"Damage identification and bearing capacity evaluation of bridges based on distributed long-gauge strain envelope line under moving vehicle loads","volume":"27","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Intel. Mat. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04016059","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000933","article-title":"Strain-Based Damage-Assessment Method for Bridges under Moving Vehicular Loads Using Long-Gauge Strain Sensing","volume":"21","author":"Hong","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Wu, G., and Wu, B. (2017). Simultaneous Identification Method of Damage and Vehicle Parameters on Bridges Utilizing Long-Gauge Strain Influence Line under Moving Vehicle Loads, The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE).","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2257403"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2010.11.017","article-title":"Vehicle axle load identification on bridge deck with irregular road surface profile","volume":"33","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1084-0702(2006)11:4(410)","article-title":"Vehicle-induced dynamic performance of FRP versus concrete slab bridge","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2006.11.020","article-title":"Reduction of bridge dynamic amplification through adjustment of vehicle suspension damping","volume":"302","author":"Harris","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04016141","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001019","article-title":"Novel virtual simply supported beam method for detecting the speed and axles of moving vehicles on bridges","volume":"22","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/13\/3623\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:43:51Z","timestamp":1760175831000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/13\/3623"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s20133623"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20133623","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,28]]}}}