{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]],"date-time":"2026-06-13T17:11:32Z","timestamp":1781370692167,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]],"date-time":"2020-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593648000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SCOPE: Strategic Information and Communications R&amp;D Promotion Program","award":["Grant No. 172310006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant No. 172310006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Body Condition Score (BCS) for cows indicates their energy reserves, the scoring for which ranges from very thin to overweight. These measurements are especially useful during calving, as well as early lactation. Achieving a correct BCS helps avoid calving difficulties, losses and other health problems. Although BCS can be rated by experts, it is time-consuming and often inconsistent when performed by different experts. Therefore, the aim of our system is to develop a computerized system to reduce inconsistencies and to provide a time-saving solution. In our proposed system, the automatic body condition scoring system is introduced by using a 3D camera, image processing techniques and regression models. The experimental data were collected on a rotary parlor milking station on a large-scale dairy farm in Japan. The system includes an application platform for automatic image selection as a primary step, which was developed for smart monitoring of individual cows on large-scale farms. Moreover, two analytical models are proposed in two regions of interest (ROI) by extracting 3D surface roughness parameters. By applying the extracted parameters in mathematical equations, the BCS is automatically evaluated based on measurements of model accuracy, with one of the two models achieving a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 3.9%, and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.13.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]],"date-time":"2020-07-03T06:51:20Z","timestamp":1593759080000},"page":"3705","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Body Condition Score Estimation Based on Regression Analysis Using a 3D Camera"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3435-2197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thi Thi","family":"Zin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, 1 Chome-1 Gakuenkibanadainishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8447-4710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pann Thinzar","family":"Seint","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, 1 Chome-1 Gakuenkibanadainishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3623-2984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pyke","family":"Tin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, 1 Chome-1 Gakuenkibanadainishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoichiro","family":"Horii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1 Chome-1 Gakuenkibanadainishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ikuo","family":"Kobayashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Field Science Center, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, 1 Chome-1 Gakuenkibanadainishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Kellogg, W. (2020, April 02). Body Condition Scoring with Dairy Cattle. Available online: https:\/\/www.uaex.edu\/publications\/pdf\/FSA-4008.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3132","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(90)79002-9","article-title":"Relationship of changes in condition score to cow health in Holsteins","volume":"73","author":"Gearhart","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7164","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2014-9269","article-title":"Effects of precalving body condition score and prepartum feeding level on production, reproduction, and health parameters in pasture-based transition dairy cows","volume":"98","author":"Roche","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Heinrichs, A.J. (1980). Body-Condition Scoring as a Tool for Dairy Herd Management, Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture, Pennsylvania State University."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Rossi, J., and Wilson, T.W. (2020, April 23). Body Condition Scoring Beef Cows. Available online: https:\/\/secure.caes.uga.edu\/extension\/publications\/files\/pdf\/B%201308_3.PDF."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3439","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2007-0836","article-title":"Potential for Estimation of Body Condition Scores in Dairy Cattle from Digital Images","volume":"91","author":"Bewley","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Development of the body condition score system in Murrah buffaloes: Validation through ultrasonic assessment of body fat reserves","volume":"11","author":"Alapati","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(89)79081-0","article-title":"A body condition scoring chart for Holstein dairy cows","volume":"72","author":"Edmonson","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7714","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-10607","article-title":"Development of automatic body condition scoring using a low-cost 3-dimensional Kinect camera","volume":"99","author":"Spoliansky","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4294","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2018-15238","article-title":"Automated body condition scoring of dairy cows using 3-dimensional feature extraction from multiple body regions","volume":"102","author":"Song","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imamura, S., Zin, T.T., Kobayashi, I., and Horii, Y. (2017, January 24\u201327). Automatic evaluation of cow\u2019s body-condition-score using 3D camera. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 6th Global Conference on Consumer Electronics (GCCE), Nagoya, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/GCCE.2017.8229435"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Krukowski, M. (2020, April 23). Automatic Determination of Body Condition Score of Dairy Cows from 3D Images. Available online: https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/a9e1\/bddb0fdc862859b90d03e20b34d4cfdf4b93.pdf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zin, T.T., Seint, P.T., Tin, P., and Horii, Y. (2020, January 20\u201322). The Body Condition Score Indicators for Dairy Cows Using 3D Camera. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Frontiers of Computer Vision (IW-FCV), Ibusuki, Japan.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133705"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compind.2018.02.011","article-title":"Automated monitoring of dairy cow body condition, mobility and weight using a single 3D video capture device","volume":"98","author":"Hansen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Ind."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2020, April 20). Polyhedron. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polyhedron."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/13\/3705\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:46:28Z","timestamp":1760175988000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/13\/3705"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]]},"references-count":15,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s20133705"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20133705","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]]}}}