{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T08:46:24Z","timestamp":1770972384549,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]],"date-time":"2020-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593648000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2019R1A2C2006269"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2019R1A2C2006269"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is being actively investigated as a non-invasive and non-radioactive imaging technique for sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy. By taking advantage of optical and ultrasound imaging, PAI probes SLNs non-invasively with methylene blue (MB) in both live animals and breast cancer patients. However, these PAI systems have limitations for widespread use in clinics and commercial marketplaces because the lasers used by the PAI systems, e.g., tunable liquid dye laser systems and optical parametric oscillator (OPO) lasers, are bulky in size, not economical, and use risky flammable and toxic liquid dyes. To overcome these limitations, we are proposing a novel dual-modal photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging system based on a solid-state dye laser (SD-PAUSI), which is compact, convenient, and carries far less risk of flammability and toxicity. Using a solid-state dye handpiece that generates 650-nm wavelength, we successfully imaged the MB tube positioned deeply (~3.9 cm) in chicken breast tissue. The SLNs were also photoacoustically detected in the in vivo rats beneath a 2.2-cm-thick layer of chicken breast, which is deeper than the typical depth of SLNs in humans (1.2 \u00b1 0.5 cm). Furthermore, we showed the multispectral capability of the PAI by switching the dye handpiece, in which the MB-dyed SLN was selectively highlighted from the surrounding vasculature. These results demonstrated the great potential of the SD-PAUSI as an easy but effective modality for SLN detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20133714","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,3]],"date-time":"2020-07-03T06:51:20Z","timestamp":1593759080000},"page":"3714","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["In Vivo Dual-Modal Photoacoustic and Ultrasound Imaging of Sentinel Lymph Nodes Using a Solid-State Dye Laser System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9566-0962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moongyu","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Creative IT Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wonseok","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Creative IT Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joongho","family":"Ahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Creative IT Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hanyoung","family":"Ryu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"R&amp;D Center, Wontech Co. Ltd., Daejeon 34028, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7939-5428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youngseok","family":"Seo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"R&amp;D Center, Wontech Co. Ltd., Daejeon 34028, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7249-1257","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chulhong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Creative IT Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1126\/science.os-1.11.130","article-title":"The photophone","volume":"1","author":"Bell","year":"1880","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-018-0071-6","article-title":"Multimodal Photoacoustic Imaging: Systems, Applications, and Agents","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1216210","article-title":"Photoacoustic tomography: In vivo imaging from organelles to organs","volume":"335","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2756","DOI":"10.1021\/cr900266s","article-title":"In vivo photoacoustic tomography of chemicals: High-resolution functional and molecular optical imaging at new depths","volume":"110","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2007.913515","article-title":"Simultaneous molecular and hypoxia imaging of brain tumors in vivo using spectroscopic photoacoustic tomography","volume":"96","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-04576-z","article-title":"Single-breath-hold photoacoustic computed tomography of the breast","volume":"9","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2019.2938518","article-title":"Super wide-field photoacoustic microscopy of animals and humans in vivo","volume":"39","author":"Baik","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4271","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-18-3089","article-title":"A peptide probe enables photoacoustic-guided imaging and drug delivery to lung tumors in K-rasLA2 mutant mice","volume":"79","author":"Jung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8287","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CC03100E","article-title":"\u201cSmart\u201d gold nanoparticles for photoacoustic imaging: An imaging contrast agent responsive to the cancer microenvironment and signal amplification via pH-induced aggregation","volume":"52","author":"Song","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e201800454","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.201800454","article-title":"In vivo label-free functional photoacoustic monitoring of ischemic reperfusion","volume":"12","author":"Bi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biophotonics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1912","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2017.2696038","article-title":"Real-time triple-modal photoacoustic, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance fusion imaging of humans","volume":"36","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2017.08.002","article-title":"Feasibility of photoacoustic\/ultrasound imaging of synovitis in finger joints using a point-of-care system","volume":"8","author":"Daoudi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41377-019-0220-4","article-title":"Super-resolution localization photoacoustic microscopy using intrinsic red blood cells as contrast absorbers","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.10091772","article-title":"Sentinel lymph nodes in the rat: Noninvasive photoacoustic and US imaging with a clinical US system","volume":"256","author":"Erpelding","year":"2010","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.16677","article-title":"Multispectral ex vivo photoacoustic imaging of cutaneous melanoma for better selection of the excision margin","volume":"179","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201200388","article-title":"Cu2\u2013xSe nanocrystals with localized surface plasmon resonance as sensitive contrast agents for in vivo photoacoustic imaging: Demonstration of sentinel lymph node mapping","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-2998(97)80036-0","article-title":"Lymphoscintigraphy, the sentinel node concept, and the intraoperative gamma probe in melanoma, breast cancer, and other potential cancers","volume":"27","author":"Alazraki","year":"1997","journal-title":"Semin. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoncol.2017.4000","article-title":"Lymphatic Mapping and Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy for Breast Cancer","volume":"4","author":"Heerdt","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Oncol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2009.01.045","article-title":"Noninvasive in vivo spectroscopic nanorod-contrast photoacoustic mapping of sentinel lymph nodes","volume":"70","author":"Song","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1007\/s13534-018-0068-1","article-title":"Multimodal photoacoustic imaging as a tool for sentinel lymph node identification and biopsy guidance","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Eng. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2509","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.39403","article-title":"Deep tissue photoacoustic imaging of nickel (II) dithiolene-containing polymeric nanoparticles in the second near-infrared window","volume":"10","author":"Park","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1021\/nn102274q","article-title":"Noninvasive photoacoustic and fluorescence sentinel lymph node identification using dye-loaded perfluorocarbon nanoparticles","volume":"5","author":"Akers","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20548","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NR05672B","article-title":"Bi 2 Se 3 nanoplates for contrast-enhanced photoacoustic imaging at 1064 nm","volume":"10","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800941","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201800941","article-title":"In vivo photoacoustic imaging of livers using biodegradable hyaluronic acid-conjugated silica nanoparticles","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12556","DOI":"10.1039\/C7NR03742B","article-title":"A dual modal silver bumpy nanoprobe for photoacoustic imaging and SERS multiplexed identification of in vivo lymph nodes","volume":"9","author":"Cha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046010","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3469829","article-title":"Handheld array-based photoacoustic probe for guiding needle biopsy of sentinel lymph nodes","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.1.000278","article-title":"Deeply penetrating in vivo photoacoustic imaging using a clinical ultrasound array system","volume":"1","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15748","DOI":"10.1038\/srep15748","article-title":"Dual-modality photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging system for noninvasive sentinel lymph node detection in patients with breast cancer","volume":"5","author":"Erpelding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2011.09.006","article-title":"Multimodal sentinel lymph node mapping with single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)\/computed tomography (CT) and photoacoustic tomography","volume":"159","author":"Akers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370219889968","article-title":"Towards clinical photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging: Probe improvement and real-time graphical user interface","volume":"245","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xia, W., Kuniyil Ajith Singh, M., Maneas, E., Sato, N., Shigeta, Y., Agano, T., Ourselin, S., West, S.J., and Desjardins, A.E. (2018). Handheld real-time LED-based photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging system for accurate visualization of clinical metal needles and superficial vasculature to guide minimally invasive procedures. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051394"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Light emitting diodes based photoacoustic imaging and potential clinical applications","volume":"8","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2017.11.001","article-title":"The characterization of an economic and portable LED-based photoacoustic imaging system to facilitate molecular imaging","volume":"9","author":"Hariri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Balslev, S. (2006). Polymer Dye Lasers, Technical University of Denmark (DTU)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9804","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.16.009804","article-title":"Solid state dye lasers based on LDS 698 doped in modified polymethyl methacrylate","volume":"16","author":"Fan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2313(02)00571-9","article-title":"Solid-state polymeric dye lasers","volume":"101","author":"Singh","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Lumin."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Prahl, S. (2020, June 27). Optical Absorption of Methylene Blue. Oregon Medical Laser Center Web Site. Available online: https:\/\/omlc.org\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, H.-Y., Tseng, K.-W., Nguyen, H.-T., Kuo, C.-T., and Wang, H.-C. (2020). Hyperspectral Ophthalmoscope Images for the Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy Stage. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9061613"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"4119","article-title":"Methylene blue dye, an accurate dye for sentinel lymph node identification in early breast cancer","volume":"29","author":"Mathelin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4644","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2010.0353","article-title":"Performance benchmarks of an array-based hand-held photoacoustic probe adapted from a clinical ultrasound system for non-invasive sentinel lymph node imaging","volume":"369","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2000). ANSI Z136.1: American National Standard for Safe Use of Lasers, The Laser Institute of America (LIA). Available online: https:\/\/www.lia.org\/resources\/laser-safety-information\/laser-safety-standards\/ansi-z136-standards."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2015.09.001","article-title":"Photoacoustic-guided focused ultrasound (PAFUSion) for identifying reflection artifacts in photoacoustic imaging","volume":"3","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.37.000798","article-title":"Anisotropy in the absorption and scattering spectra of chicken breast tissue","volume":"37","author":"Marquez","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2847","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/47\/16\/302","article-title":"Bulk optical properties of healthy female breast tissue","volume":"47","author":"Durduran","year":"2002","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2020.100168","article-title":"3D PHOVIS: 3D photoacoustic visualization studio","volume":"18","author":"Cho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacs.2020.100173","article-title":"Three-dimensional Clinical Handheld Photoacoustic\/Ultrasound Scanner","volume":"18","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photoacoustics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2018.2861400","article-title":"A novel 2-D synthetic aperture focusing technique for acoustic-resolution photoacoustic microscopy","volume":"38","author":"Jeon","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/13\/3714\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:46:38Z","timestamp":1760175998000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/13\/3714"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s20133714"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20133714","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,2]]}}}