{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T18:27:18Z","timestamp":1774031238987,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,22]],"date-time":"2020-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1595376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MOST 104-2622-E-194-014-CC2, 105-2221-E-006-265-MY5, 106-2622-E-194-004-CC2, and 106-2628-E-194-001-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 104-2622-E-194-014-CC2, 105-2221-E-006-265-MY5, 106-2622-E-194-004-CC2, and 106-2628-E-194-001-MY3"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the manufacturing industry, grinding is used as a major process for machining difficult-to-cut materials. Grinding is the most complicated and precise machining process. For grinding machines, continuous generating gear grinding machines are widely used to machine gears which are essential machine elements. However, due to its complicated process, it is very difficult to design a reliable measurement method to identify the grinding wheel loading phenomena during the grinding process. Therefore, this paper proposes a measurement method to identify the grinding wheel loading phenomenon in the grinding process for continuous generating gear grinding machines. In the proposed approach, an acoustic emission (AE) sensor was embedded to monitor the grinding wheel conditions; an offline digital image processing technique was used to determine the loading areas over the surface of Al2O3 grinding wheels; and surface roughness of the ground workpiece was measured to quantify its machining quality. Then these three data were analyzed to find their correlation. The experimental results have shown that there are two stages of grinding in the grinding process and the proposed measurement method can provide a quantitative grinding wheel loading evaluation from the AE signals online.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20154092","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,23]],"date-time":"2020-07-23T11:26:01Z","timestamp":1595503561000},"page":"4092","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Grinding Wheel Loading Evaluation by Using Acoustic Emission Signals and Digital Image Processing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3537-5828","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chien-Sheng","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City 70101, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yang-Jiun","family":"Ou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi County 62102, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-0136(01)00533-7","article-title":"Process monitoring of centerless grinding using acoustic emission","volume":"111","author":"Kim","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-04407-5","article-title":"Grinding performance of AISI D6 steel using CBN wheel vitrified and resinoid bonded","volume":"105","author":"Sato","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-03654-w","article-title":"Effect of CBN grain friability in hardened steel plunge grinding","volume":"103","author":"Lopes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-0136(00)00433-7","article-title":"Monitoring of the condition of diamond grinding wheels using acoustic emission technique","volume":"101","author":"Mokbel","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2013.2281576","article-title":"Tool condition monitoring of single-point dresser using acoustic emission and neural networks models","volume":"63","author":"Martins","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4117","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-04125-y","article-title":"Tool wear monitoring in milling of titanium alloy Ti\u20136Al\u20134 V under MQL conditions based on a new tool wear categorization method","volume":"104","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2015.05.008","article-title":"Evaluation of neural models applied to the estimation of tool wear in the grinding of advanced ceramics","volume":"42","author":"Nakai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2009.08.008","article-title":"An investigation of the effects of wheel-cleaning parameters in creep-feed grinding","volume":"50","author":"Cameron","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011012-1","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4025782","article-title":"Grinding wheel loading evaluation using digital image processing","volume":"136","author":"Adibi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1760763","article-title":"Mechanics of loading for electroplated cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheels during grinding of a nickel-based superalloy in water-based lubricating fluids","volume":"126","author":"Gift","year":"2004","journal-title":"ASME J. Tribol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-013-4745-z","article-title":"Analytical modeling of grinding wheel loading phenomena","volume":"68","author":"Adibi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2005.05.017","article-title":"Investigation of acoustic emission signals under a simulative environment of grinding burn","volume":"46","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-018-2513-9","article-title":"Evaluation of grinding wheel loading phenomena by using acoustic emission signals","volume":"99","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6955(99)00055-3","article-title":"Characterization of the grinding process by acoustic emission","volume":"40","author":"Grabec","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2006.05.008","article-title":"A wavelet-based methodology for grinding wheel condition monitoring","volume":"47","author":"Liao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmachtools.2012.08.004","article-title":"Acoustic emission spikes at workpiece edges in grinding: Origin and applications","volume":"64","author":"Babel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6955(00)00057-2","article-title":"Neural network detection of grinding burn from acoustic emission","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3185907","article-title":"An investigation of grinding and wheel loading using acoustic emission","volume":"106","author":"Dornfeld","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Eng. Ind."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Rui, Y., Cai, X., Cheng, R., Du, X., and Lu, J. (2020). A Weighted Linear Least Squares Location Method of an Acoustic Emission Source without Measuring Wave Velocity. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113191"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-017-1011-9","article-title":"The estimation of machining results and efficiency of the abrasive electro-discharge grinding process of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy using the high-frequency acoustic emission and force signals","volume":"94","author":"Sutowski","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2275","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-017-0687-1","article-title":"Experimental investigation of correlation between attrition wear and features of acoustic emission signals in single-grit grinding","volume":"93","author":"Mei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-624X(99)00064-5","article-title":"Acoustic emission monitoring of high speed grinding of silicon nitride","volume":"38","author":"Hwang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-624X(97)00073-5","article-title":"Description of ground surfaces based upon AE analysis by neural network","volume":"35","author":"Muzic","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/S0007-8506(07)63075-3","article-title":"Raw acoustic emission signal analysis of grinding process","volume":"45","author":"Webster","year":"1996","journal-title":"CIRP Ann-Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6955(00)00082-1","article-title":"Trouble diagnosis of the grinding process by using acoustic emission signals","volume":"41","author":"Kwak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3184469","article-title":"The grinding of workpieces exhibiting high adhesion. part 1: Mechanisms","volume":"103","author":"Yossifon","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Eng. Ind."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3184470","article-title":"The grinding of workpieces exhibiting high adhesion. part 2: Forces","volume":"103","author":"Yossifon","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Eng. Ind."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aulestia Viera, M.A., Aguiar, P.R., Oliveira Junior, P., Alexandre, F.A., Lopes, W.N., Bianchi, E.C., da Silva, R.B., D\u2019addona, D., and Andreoli, A. (2019). A Time\u2013Frequency Acoustic Emission-Based Technique to Assess Workpiece Surface Quality in Ceramic Grinding with PZT Transducer. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183913"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmatprotec.2014.04.013","article-title":"Experimental study on grinding force and grinding temperature of Aermet 100 steel in surface grinding","volume":"214","author":"Yao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mater. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-016-8504-9","article-title":"The identification of abrasive grains in the decohesion process by acoustic emission signal patterns","volume":"87","author":"Sutowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-6955(01)00108-0","article-title":"A brief review: Acoustic emission method for tool wear monitoring during turning","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-03607-3","article-title":"Use of acoustic emission and cutting force signals to monitor built-up edge formation in stainless steel turning","volume":"103","author":"Ahmed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-04378-7","article-title":"Prediction of Inconel 718 roughness with acoustic emission using convolutional neural network based regression","volume":"105","author":"Siler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4179","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-03526-3","article-title":"Acoustic emission monitoring of sawing process: Artificial intelligence approach for optimal sensory feature selection","volume":"102","author":"Nasir","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4091","DOI":"10.1007\/s00170-019-04177-0","article-title":"Surface quality monitoring in abrasive water jet machining of Ti6Al4V\u2013CFRP stacks through wavelet packet analysis of acoustic emission signals","volume":"104","author":"Pahuja","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Q., Pan, J., Cai, M., and Zhang, Y. (2020). Investigating the effect of rock bridge on the stability of locked section slopes by the direct shear test and acoustic emission technique. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030638"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, K., Xia, Z., Si, Y., Lu, Q., and Peng, Y. (2020). Noise Reduction of Welding Crack AE Signal Based on EMD and Wavelet Packet. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030761"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalo, K., Niederer, D., Sus, R., Sohrabi, K., Gro\u00df, V., and Vogt, L. (2020). Reliability of Vibroarthrography to Assess Knee Joint Sounds in Motion. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20071998"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Jin, X., Wu, D., and Ye, H. (2020). Acoustic Emission Analysis of Corroded Reinforced Concrete Columns under Compressive Loading. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082412"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lefever, G., Snoeck, D., De Belie, N., Van Vlierberghe, S., Van Hemelrijck, D., and Aggelis, D.G. (2020). The Contribution of Elastic Wave NDT to the Characterization of Modern Cementitious Media. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20102959"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luong, T.T., and Kim, J.-M. (2020). The Enhancement of Leak Detection Performance for Water Pipelines through the Renovation of Training Data. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20092542"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wotzka, D., and Cicho\u0144, A. (2020). Study on the Influence of Measuring AE Sensor Type on the Effectiveness of OLTC Defect Classification. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20113095"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cirp.2008.09.002","article-title":"Gear finishing by abrasive processes","volume":"57","author":"Karpuschewski","year":"2008","journal-title":"CIRP Ann-Manuf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2020, July 16). Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HSL_and_HSV."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Gonzalez, R., and Woods, R.E. (2002). Digital Image Processing, Prentice-Hall. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2012.12.024","article-title":"Optical inspection system with tunable exposure unit for micro-crack detection in solar wafers","volume":"124","author":"Ko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1717","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-013-1883-z","article-title":"Design and characterization of precise laser-based autofocusing microscope with reduced geometrical fluctuations","volume":"19","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/15\/4092\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:50:55Z","timestamp":1760176255000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/15\/4092"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,22]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s20154092"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20154092","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,22]]}}}