{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T09:23:46Z","timestamp":1780478626628,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,23]],"date-time":"2020-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1595462400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Privacy is often overlooked in Hong Kong nursing homes with the majority of elderly residents living in shared bedrooms of three to five people. Only a few studies have used Bluetooth low energy indoor positioning systems to explore the relationship between privacy and social interaction among elderly residents. The study investigates the social behavioural patterns of elderly residents living in three-bed, four-bed, and five-bed rooms in a nursing home. Location data of 50 residents were used for the identification of mobility and social interaction patterns in relation to different degrees of privacy and tested for statistical significance. Privacy is found to have a weak negative correlation with mobility patterns and social behaviour, implying that the more privacy there is, the less mobility and more formal interaction is found. Residents who had more privacy did not spend more time in social space. Residents living in bedrooms that opened directly onto social space had higher social withdrawal tendencies, indicating the importance of transitional spaces between private and public areas. Friends\u2019 rooms were used extensively by residents who had little privacy, however, the concept of friends\u2019 rooms have rarely been discussed in nursing homes. There is evidence supporting the importance of privacy for social interaction. Future study directions include considering how other design factors, such as configuration and social space diversity, work with privacy to influence social interaction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20154101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,23]],"date-time":"2020-07-23T11:26:01Z","timestamp":1595503561000},"page":"4101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The Role of Bedroom Privacy in Social Interaction among Elderly Residents in Nursing Homes: An Exploratory Case Study of Hong Kong"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6788-9869","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aria C. H.","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Design, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8668-9467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Newman","family":"Lau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Design, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8038-1605","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey C. F.","family":"Ho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Design, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/39.1.25","article-title":"Conceptualization and Measurement of Quality of Life in Dementia: The Dementia Quality of Life Instrument (DQoL)","volume":"39","author":"Brod","year":"1999","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1017\/S0144686X0000502X","article-title":"Towards a Theory of Dementia Care: Personhood and Well-Being","volume":"12","author":"Kitwood","year":"1992","journal-title":"Ageing Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1177\/1471301211421189","article-title":"Informal Social Interaction among Residents with Dementia in Special Care Units: Exploring the Role of the Physical and Social Environments","volume":"11","author":"Campo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dementia"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Capitman, J., Leutz, W., Bishop, C., and Casler, R. (2005). Long-Term Care Quality: Historical Overview and Current Initiatives, Schneider Institute for Health Policy, Heller School for Social Policy and Management, Brandeis University."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Cecil, G. (2005). Improvement and Innovation in Long-Term Care: A Research Agenda\u2014Report and Recommendations from a National Consensus Conference, Sheps Center for Health Services Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916504272658","article-title":"Advantages and Disadvantages of Single-Versus Multiple-Occupancy Rooms in Acute Care Environments: A Review and Analysis of the Literature","volume":"37","author":"Chaudhury","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/47.2.169","article-title":"Exploring the Cost and Value of Private versus Shared Bedrooms in Nursing Homes","volume":"47","author":"Calkins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kahn, D.L. (1991). Living in a Nursing Home: Experiences of Suffering and Meaning in Old Age. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington]."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Townend, P. (1962). The Last Refuge a Survey of Residential Institutions and Homes for the Aged in England and Wales, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1093\/geronj\/25.1.48","article-title":"Wish for Privacy by Young and Old","volume":"25","author":"Lawton","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Willcocks, D., Peace, S., and Kellaher, L. (1987). Private Lives in Public Places, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.20.6.114","article-title":"What Older People Want from Long-Term Care, and How They Can Get It","volume":"20","author":"Kane","year":"2001","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Census and Statistics Department (2020, July 21). Hong Kong Population Projections for 2017 to 2066, Available online: https:\/\/www.censtatd.gov.hk\/media_workers_corner\/pc_rm\/hkpp2017_2066\/index.jsp."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Chiu, P. (2020, July 21). Hong Kong\u2019s Cramped Care Homes Could Get Bigger\u2014But No Time Soon. Available online: https:\/\/www.scmp.com\/news\/hong-kong\/society\/article\/2189379\/change-could-be-way-hong-kongs-cramped-care-homes-no-time."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2020, July 23). [Chinese Version Only]."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2702.2006.01833.x","article-title":"Nursing Home Placement: Perspectives of Community-Dwelling Older Persons","volume":"16","author":"Tse","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"445","article-title":"Correlates and Prevalence of Depression in Chinese Residents of Nursing Homes in Hong Kong and Implications for Services and Intervention Policies","volume":"17","author":"Yeung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Soc. Work"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/13561820120063129","article-title":"Perceptions of Hong Kong Chinese Elders on Adjustment to Residential Care","volume":"15","author":"Lee","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Interprof. Care"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Kane, R.A., Baker, M.O., Salmon, J., and Veazie, W. (1998). Consumer Perspectives on Private versus Shared Accommodations in Assisted Living Settings, American Association of Retired Persons."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Ulrich, R., Quan, X., Zimring, C., Joseph, A., and Choudbary, R. (2004). The Role of the Physical Environment in the Hospital of the 21st Century: A Once-in-a-Lifetime Opportunity, The Center for Health Design."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2648.2006.04116.x","article-title":"An Exploratory Study of Chinese Older People\u2019s Perceptions of Privacy in Residential Care Homes","volume":"57","author":"Low","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-9824.2009.01018.x","article-title":"Quality of Life of Older People in Residential Care Home: A Literature Review","volume":"1","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nurs. Healthc. Chronic Illn."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Terakawa, Y. (2004, January 2\u20136). The Relationship between Environment and Behavior at the Institutional Setting for the Elderly. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Environmental Design Research Association, Albuquerque, NM, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Whyte, W.F. (2012). Street Corner Society: The Social Structure of an Italian Slum, University of Chicago Press."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1086\/268444","article-title":"Question Threat and Response Bias","volume":"42","author":"Bradburn","year":"1978","journal-title":"Public Opin. Q."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15434","DOI":"10.3390\/s131115434","article-title":"Process Mining for Individualized Behavior Modeling Using Wireless Tracking in Nursing Homes","volume":"13","author":"Benedi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Altman, I. (1975). The Environment and Social Behavior: Privacy, Personal Space, Territory, and Crowding, Brooks\/Cole Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Westin, A.F. (1967). Privacy and Freedom, Atheneum."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Proshansky, H.M., Ittelson, W.H., and Rivlin, L.G. (1970). Environmental Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting, Holt, Rinehart & Winston."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.2307\/2574986","article-title":"Privacy\u2014A Useful Concept?","volume":"42","author":"Bates","year":"1964","journal-title":"Soc. Forces"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.2307\/1190673","article-title":"Some Psychological Aspects of Privacy","volume":"31","author":"Jourard","year":"1966","journal-title":"Law Contemp. Probl."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Lewis, O. (2011). The Children of Sanchez: Autobiography of a Mexican Family, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Hall, E.T. (1966). The Hidden Dimension, Doubleday."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Sommer, R. (1969). Personal Space. The Behavioral Basis of Design, Prentice-Hall, Inc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1080\/02815738608730092","article-title":"\u201cSoft Edges\u201d in Residential Streets","volume":"3","author":"Gehl","year":"1986","journal-title":"Scand. Hous. Plan. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Alidoust, S., Bosman, C., and Holden, G. (2015). Socially Healthy Ageing: The Importance of Third Places, Soft Edges and Walkable Neighbourhoods. State of Australian Cities Conference 2015: Refereed Proceedings, Urban Research Program at Griffith University on behalf of the Australian Cities Research Network."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(1976). Koncelik. Designing the Open Nursing Home, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Nelson, G.G. (2020, May 29). Household Models for Nursing Home Environments. Available online: http:\/\/www.artifactsofculturechange.org\/Data\/Documents\/NelsonHousehold-ResidentialPaper.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brown, C., Efstratiou, C., Leontiadis, I., Quercia, D., Mascolo, C., Scott, J., and Key, P. (2014). The Architecture of Innovation: Tracking Face-to-Face Interactions with Ubicomp Technologies. Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/2632048.2632056"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1017\/nws.2015.10","article-title":"Data on Face-to-Face Contacts in an Office Building Suggest a Low-Cost Vaccination Strategy Based on Community Linkers","volume":"3","author":"Vestergaard","year":"2015","journal-title":"Netw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S69","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/57.2.S69","article-title":"Therapeutic Environment Screening Survey for Nursing Homes (TESS-NH)","volume":"57","author":"Sloane","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1017\/S0144686X04002387","article-title":"Quality of Life and Building Design in Residential and Nursing Homes for Older People","volume":"24","author":"Parker","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ageing Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-6612.2010.00444.x","article-title":"An Environmental Audit Tool Suitable for Use in Homelike Facilities for People with Dementia","volume":"30","author":"Fleming","year":"2011","journal-title":"Australas. J. Ageing"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-010-0043-x","article-title":"Smart Homes for the Elderly Dementia Sufferers: Identification and Prediction of Abnormal Behaviour","volume":"3","author":"Lotfi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Ambient Intell. Humaniz. Comput."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sweeney, D., Quinlan, L.R., Browne, P., Richardson, M., Meskell, P., and \u00d3Laighin, G. (2019). A Technological Review of Wearable Cueing Devices Addressing Freezing of Gait in Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19061277"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bijnens, W., Aarts, J., Stevens, A., Ummels, D., and Meijer, K. (2019). Optimization and Validation of an Adjustable Activity Classification Algorithm for Assessment of Physical Behavior in Elderly. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19245344"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mainetti, L., Patrono, L., and Rametta, P. (2016, January 22\u201324). Capturing Behavioral Changes of Elderly People through Unobtruisive Sensing Technologies. Proceedings of the 2016 24th International Conference on Software, Telecommunications and Computer Networks (SoftCOM), Split, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SOFTCOM.2016.7772126"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11728","DOI":"10.3390\/s130911728","article-title":"A Telemetry System Embedded in Clothes for Indoor Localization and Elderly Health Monitoring","volume":"13","author":"Charlon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1159\/000455168","article-title":"Pilot Test of a New Personal Health System Integrating Environmental and Wearable Sensors for Telemonitoring and Care of Elderly People at Home (SMARTA Project)","volume":"63","author":"Pigini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gerontology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.3233\/THC-2010-0590","article-title":"Towards Personalised Ambient Monitoring of Mental Health via Mobile Technologies","volume":"18","author":"Prociow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Technol. Health Care"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montanari, A., Nawaz, S., Mascolo, C., and Sailer, K. (2017, January 13\u201317). A Study of Bluetooth Low Energy Performance for Human Proximity Detection in the Workplace. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications (PerCom), Kona, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PERCOM.2017.7917855"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Bechtel, R.B., and Churchman, A. (2003). Design and Dementia. Handbook of Environmental Psychology, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1177\/001391659803000404","article-title":"Multiple Occupancy versus Private Rooms on Dementia Care Units","volume":"30","author":"Morgan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916584166004","article-title":"Architecture for the Mentally Impaired Elderly","volume":"16","author":"Lawton","year":"1984","journal-title":"Environ. Behav."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2007.01169.x","article-title":"Resident Outcomes in Small-House Nursing Homes: A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Initial Green House Program","volume":"55","author":"Kane","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/43.5.697","article-title":"Environmental Correlates to Behavioral Health Outcomes in Alzheimer\u2019s Special Care Units","volume":"43","author":"Zeisel","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"117","article-title":"Configuration and Design in Caring Environments: Syntax and Quality of Life in a Sample of Residential Care Homes for Older People","volume":"Volume 2","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 5th International Space Syntax Symposium"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1177\/1533317509334959","article-title":"Dementia-Friendly Architecture: Environments that Facilitate Wayfinding in Nursing Homes","volume":"24","author":"Marquardt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. Other Dement."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/S0890-4065(02)00041-5","article-title":"Beyond Words: Older People with Dementia Using and Interpreting Nonverbal Behaviour","volume":"16","author":"Hubbard","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Aging Stud."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.3928\/0098-9134-19970401-10","article-title":"Social Interaction among People with Dementia","volume":"23","author":"Kelley","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"The Hong Kong Social Welfare Department (2020, May 29). Residential Care Services for the Elderly, Available online: https:\/\/www.swd.gov.hk\/en\/index\/site_pubsvc\/page_elderly\/sub_residentia\/id_enhancedbo."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-4943(97)00781-4","article-title":"Outdoor Mobility and Social Relationships of Elderly People","volume":"24","author":"Mollenkopf","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Haitsma, K.V., Curyto, K., Calkins, M., and Saperstein, A. (2004). The Environmental Design Lexicon for Dementia Care, Final Report of Grant IIRG-00-2058, Funded by the Alzheimer\u2019s Association, Polisher Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1097\/00002093-199703000-00008","article-title":"How Should a Group Living Unit for Demented Elderly Be Designed to Decrease Psychiatric Symptoms?","volume":"11","author":"Annerstedt","year":"1997","journal-title":"Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1998.tb02720.x","article-title":"Environmental Correlates of Resident Agitation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Special Care Units","volume":"46","author":"Sloane","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e325","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gnw259","article-title":"The Influence of the Physical Environment on Residents with Dementia in Long-Term Care Settings: A Review of the Empirical Literature","volume":"58","author":"Chaudhury","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capriglione, D., Casinelli, D., and Ferrigno, L. (2015, January 12\u201313). Use of Frequency Diversity to Improve the Performance of RSSI-Based Distance Measurements. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Workshop on Measurements Networking (M&N), Coimbra, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWMN.2015.7322973"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/15\/4101\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:51:05Z","timestamp":1760176265000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/15\/4101"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,23]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s20154101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20154101","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,23]]}}}