{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T06:38:43Z","timestamp":1775543923470,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]],"date-time":"2020-08-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1596758400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OPP1111252"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1111252"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["346772917"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["346772917"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Electrochemical spectroscopy enables rapid, sensitive, and label-free analyte detection without the need of extensive and laborious labeling procedures and sample preparation. In addition, with the emergence of commercially available screen-printed electrodes (SPEs), a valuable, disposable alternative to costly bulk electrodes for electrochemical (bio-)sensor applications was established in recent years. However, applications with bare SPEs are limited and many applications demand additional\/supporting structures or flow cells. Here, high-resolution 3D printing technology presents an ideal tool for the rapid and flexible fabrication of tailor-made, experiment-specific systems. In this work, flow cells for SPE-based electrochemical (bio-)sensor applications were designed and 3D printed. The successful implementation was demonstrated in an aptamer-based impedimetric biosensor approach for the detection of Escherichia coli (E. coli) Crooks strain as a proof of concept. Moreover, further developments towards a 3D-printed microfluidic flow cell with an integrated micromixer also illustrate the great potential of high-resolution 3D printing technology to enable homogeneous mixing of reagents or sample solutions in (bio-)sensor applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164421","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,10]],"date-time":"2020-08-10T05:07:23Z","timestamp":1597036043000},"page":"4421","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["3D-Printed Flow Cells for Aptamer-Based Impedimetric Detection of E. coli Crooks Strain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5755-7550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ina G.","family":"Siller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstra\u00dfe 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany"}]},{"given":"John-Alexander","family":"Preuss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstra\u00dfe 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany"}]},{"given":"Katharina","family":"Urmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA"}]},{"given":"Michael R.","family":"Hoffmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E. California Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91125, USA"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Scheper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstra\u00dfe 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7008-1673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janina","family":"Bahnemann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Technical Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstra\u00dfe 5, 30167 Hannover, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Impedimetric Aptamer-Based Biosensors: Applications","volume":"174","author":"Reich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Kim, M.S., Tu, S.I., and Chao, K. (2012). Impedance Biosensor Based on Interdigitated Electrode Array for Detection of E. coli O157:H7 in Food Products. Sensing for Agriculture and Food Quality and Safety Iv, Spie-Int Soc Optical Engineering."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2009.01.059","article-title":"Microorganisms Recognition and Quantification by Lectin Adsorptive Affinity Impedance","volume":"78","author":"Gamella","year":"2009","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2016.04.008","article-title":"Bacteriophage Immobilized Graphene Electrodes for Impedimetric Sensing of Bacteria (Staphylococcus arlettae)","volume":"505","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioeng.2007.06.001","article-title":"Selex-a (R)Evolutionary Method to Generate High-Affinity Nucleic Acid Ligands","volume":"24","author":"Stoltenburg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1038\/346818a0","article-title":"In Vitro Selection of Rna Molecules That Bind Specific Ligands","volume":"346","author":"Ellington","year":"1990","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-001-1189-3","article-title":"Aptasensors\u2014The Future of Biosensing","volume":"372","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.10.030","article-title":"Gold Atomic Cluster Mediated Electrochemical Aptasensor for the Detection of Lipopolysaccharide","volume":"101","author":"Posha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1021\/ac503639s","article-title":"Aptamer-Based Label-Free Impedimetric Biosensor for Detection of Progesterone","volume":"87","author":"Jimenez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.09.111","article-title":"Development of an Automated Flow-Based Electrochemical Aptasensor for on-Line Detection of Ochratoxin A","volume":"176","author":"Rhouati","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.12.040","article-title":"Capacitive Aptamer-Antibody Based Sandwich Assay for the Detection of Vegf Cancer Biomarker in Serum","volume":"209","author":"Qureshi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.07.032","article-title":"A High Sensitive Electrochemical Aptasensor for the Determination of Vegf (165) in Serum of Lung Cancer Patient","volume":"74","author":"Tabrizi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B739","DOI":"10.1149\/2.1991713jes","article-title":"Developing an Impedimetric Aptasensor for Selective Label-Free Detection of Cea as a Cancer Biomarker Based on Gold Nanoparticles Loaded in Functionalized Mesoporous Silica Films","volume":"164","author":"Shekari","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.11.017","article-title":"A Label-Free Impedimetric Aptasensor for the Detection of Bacillus Anthracis Spore Simulant","volume":"126","author":"Mazzaracchio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-015-1649-7","article-title":"Impedimetric Salmonella Aptasensor Using a Glassy Carbon Electrode Modified with an Electrodeposited Composite Consisting of Reduced Graphene Oxide and Carbon Nanotubes","volume":"183","author":"Jia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.08.160","article-title":"Nanoporous Gold as a Suitable Substrate for Preparation of a New Sensitive Electrochemical Aptasensor for Detection of Salmonella typhimurium","volume":"255","author":"Ranjbar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.05.037","article-title":"A Paper Based Graphene-Nanocauliflower Hybrid Composite for Point of Care Biosensing","volume":"85","author":"Burrs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.12.110","article-title":"A Microfluidic Impedance Biosensor Based on Immunomagnetic Separation and Urease Catalysis for Continuous-Flow Detection of E. coli O157:H7","volume":"259","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Cullum, B.M., and McLamore, E.S. (2015). Rapid Detection of Listeria Spp. Using an Internalin a Aptasensor Based on Carbon-Metal Nanohybrid Structures. Smart Biomedical and Physiological Sensor Technology Xii, Spie-Int Soc Optical Engineering."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2011.11.130","article-title":"In Vitro Selection of Escherichia coli O157:H7-Specific Rna Aptamer","volume":"417","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reich, P., Stoltenburg, R., Strehlitz, B., Frense, D., and Beckmann, D. (2017). Development of an Impedimetric Aptasensor for the Detection of Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18112484"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-014-1195-8","article-title":"Impedimetric Aptasensor for Staphylococcus Aureus Based on Nanocomposite Prepared from Reduced Graphene Oxide and Gold Nanoparticles","volume":"181","author":"Jia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y.W., Wang, H.X., Jia, G.C., and Li, Z. (2018). Application of Aptamer-Based Biosensor for Rapid Detection of Pathogenic Escherichia coli. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082518"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2020.112214","article-title":"Electrochemical Biosensors for Pathogen Detection","volume":"159","author":"Cesewski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2988","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2017.09.121","article-title":"Novel Impedimetric Aptasensor for Label-Free Detection of Escherichia coil O157:H7","volume":"255","author":"Ferreira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2020.02.004","article-title":"DNA Aptamer-Based Non-Faradaic Impedance Biosensor for Detecting E. coli","volume":"1107","author":"Abdelrasoul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2013.01.062","article-title":"A Label-Free DNA Aptamer-Based Impedance Biosensor for the Detection of Escherichia coli Outer Membrane Proteins","volume":"181","author":"Queiros","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1002\/celc.201600805","article-title":"Electrochemical Biosensing for the Diagnosis of Viral Infections and Tropical Diseases","volume":"4","author":"Campuzano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chemelectrochem"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-007-1293-0","article-title":"Biosensors Based on Screen-Printing Technology, Their Applications in Environmental and Food Analysis","volume":"388","author":"Tudorache","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1039\/C5AY02643A","article-title":"A Portable Electrochemical Immunosensor for Rapid Detection of Trace Aflatoxin B-1 in Rice","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4274","DOI":"10.1039\/C9AY01256G","article-title":"An Electrochemical Aptasensor for Detection of Lead Ions Using a Screen-Printed Carbon Electrode Modified with Au\/Polypyrrole Composites and Toluidine Blue","volume":"11","author":"Ding","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"7","article-title":"An Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Assay for Femtomolar Determination of Insulin Using a Screen Printed Electrode Modified with Mesoporous Carbon and 1,3,6,8-Pyrenetetrasulfonate","volume":"185","author":"Tabrizi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-017-0588-z","article-title":"Construction of a Highly Sensitive Signal-on Aptasensor Based on Gold Nanoparticles\/Functionalized Silica Nanoparticles for Selective Detection of Tryptophan","volume":"409","author":"Hashkavayi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1039\/B712609C","article-title":"Label-Free Detection of DNA with Interdigitated Micro-Electrodes in a Fluidic Cell","volume":"8","author":"Berdat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.03.015","article-title":"Development of an Aptamer-Based Impedimetric Bioassay Using Microfluidic System and Magnetic Separation for Protein Detection","volume":"59","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2013.10.031","article-title":"3d Printed Chip for Electrochemical Detection of Influenza Virus Labeled with Cds Quantum Dots","volume":"54","author":"Krejcova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2017.03.045","article-title":"Acoustic and Hybrid 3d-Printed Electrochemical Biosensors for the Real-Time Immunodetection of Liver Cancer Cells (Hepg2)","volume":"94","author":"Damiati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2011.06.012","article-title":"Highly Sensitive Disposable Nucleic Acid Biosensors for Direct Bioelectronic Detection in Raw Biological Samples","volume":"85","author":"Kuralay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.03.018","article-title":"Impedimetric Cell-Based Biosensor for Real-Time Monitoring of Cytopathic Effects Induced by Dengue Viruses","volume":"70","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.5b00175","article-title":"Development of Aptamer-Based Point-of-Care Diagnostic Devices for Malaria Using Three-Dimensional Printing Rapid Prototyping","volume":"1","author":"Dirkzwager","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.09.077","article-title":"High-Sensitivity Glycated Hemoglobin (Hba1c) Aptasensor in Rapid-Prototyping Surface Plasmon Resonance","volume":"279","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.07.017","article-title":"New Perspectives in Shake Flask Ph Control Using a 3d-Printed Control Unit Based on Ph Online Measurement","volume":"221","author":"Ude","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"489","article-title":"3d Printing in the Laboratory: Maximize Time and Funds with Customized and Open-Source Labware","volume":"21","author":"Coakley","year":"2016","journal-title":"JALA"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1002\/elsc.201400093","article-title":"3d-Printed Individual Labware in Biosciences by Rapid Prototyping: A Proof of Principle","volume":"15","author":"Lucking","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055007","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-605X\/ab8e97","article-title":"Characterization of a Customized 3d-Printed Cell Culture System Using Clear, Translucent Acrylate That Enables Optical Online Monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Siller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.07.066","article-title":"Electrochemiluminescence Detection of Human Breast Cancer Cells Using Aptamer Modified Bipolar Electrode Mounted into 3d Printed Microchannel","volume":"118","author":"Motaghi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.06.014","article-title":"An Electrochemical Elisa-Like Immunosensor for Mirnas Detection Based on Screen-Printed Gold Electrodes Modified with Reduced Graphene Oxide and Carbon Nanotubes","volume":"62","author":"Tran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.11.120","article-title":"A Novel Three-Dimensional Microtas Chip for Ultra-Selective Single Base Mismatched Cryptosporidium DNA Biosensor","volume":"282","author":"Ilkhani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.03.037","article-title":"Label- and Amplification-Free Electrochemical Detection of Bacterial Ribosomal Rna","volume":"81","author":"Henihan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1007\/s10895-010-0670-9","article-title":"A Novel Screening Method for Competitive Fret-Aptamers Applied to Escherichia coli Assay Development","volume":"20","author":"Bruno","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fluoresc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-007-1587-2","article-title":"Surface Immobilization Methods for Aptamer Diagnostic Applications","volume":"390","author":"Balamurugan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"20160012","article-title":"Aptamer-Modified Nanomaterials: Principles and Applications","volume":"18","author":"Katharina","year":"2016","journal-title":"BioNanoMaterials"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2007.11.012","article-title":"Optimization of DNA Immobilization on Gold Electrodes for Label-Free Detection by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy","volume":"23","author":"Keighley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1139\/v96-073","article-title":"Self-Assembly of Short and Long-Chain N-Alkyl Thiols onto Gold Surfaces: A Real-Time Study Using Surface Plasmon Resonance Techniques","volume":"74","author":"DeBono","year":"1996","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"153","article-title":"Electromechanical Detection of Pathogens with Self-Assembled Nucleic Acid Biosensors. TechConnect Briefs 2, Materials for Energy, Efficiency and Sustainability","volume":"2018","author":"Urmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Techconnect Briefs"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2012.01.040","article-title":"Impedimetric Detection of Single-Stranded Pcr Products Derived from Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (Mrsa) Isolates","volume":"34","author":"Corrigan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cherd.2015.12.005","article-title":"Design and Characterization of a New H-C Passive Micromixer up to Reynolds Number 100","volume":"108","author":"Viktorov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Res. Des."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.201804326","article-title":"3d Printed Microfluidic Mixers\u2014A Comparative Study on Mixing Unit Performances","volume":"15","author":"Enders","year":"2019","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1039\/b418314b","article-title":"A Serpentine Laminating Micromixer Combining Splitting\/Recombination and Advection","volume":"5","author":"Kim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.05.104","article-title":"Carbon Nanofiber Screen Printed Electrode Joined to a Flow Injection System for Nimodipine Sensing","volume":"220","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siller, I.G., Enders, A., Steinwedel, T., Epping, N.M., Kirsch, M., Lavrentieva, A., Scheper, T., and Bahnemann, J. (2019). Real-Time Live-Cell Imaging Technology Enables High-Throughput Screening to Verify in Vitro Biocompatibility of 3d Printed Materials. Materials, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma12132125"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0728(72)80294-8","article-title":"Kinetics of Ferrous\/Ferric and Ferro\/Ferricyanide Reactions at Platinum and Gold Electrodes .1. Kinetics at Bare-Metal Surfaces","volume":"35","author":"Angell","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial Electrochem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1080\/00914037.2015.1074906","article-title":"A Sandwich-Type Assay Based on Quantum Dot\/Aptamer Bioconjugates for Analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Microtiter Plate Format","volume":"65","author":"Demirkol","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Mater. Polym. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.3390\/s6101161","article-title":"Trends in Flow-Based Biosensing Systems for Pesticide Assessment","volume":"6","author":"Campas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sensors"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/16\/4421\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:58:01Z","timestamp":1760176681000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/16\/4421"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s20164421"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20164421","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,7]]}}}