{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T03:21:14Z","timestamp":1776309674016,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,12]],"date-time":"2020-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1597190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41576031"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41576031"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coastal acoustic tomography (CAT), as an innovative technology, can perform water temperature measurements both in horizontal and vertical slices. Investigations on vertical slice observations are significantly fewer in number than horizontal observations due to difficulties in multi-path arrival peak identification. In this study, a two-station sound transmission experiment is carried out in Thousand-Island Lake, Hangzhou, China, to acquire acoustic data for water temperature profiling. Time windows, determined by range-independent ray simulation, are used to identify multi-path arrival peaks and obtain corresponding sound wave travel times. Special attention is paid to travel time correction, whose errors are caused by position drifting by more than 2 m of moored stations. The sound speed and temperature profiling are divided into four layers and are calculated by regularized inversion. Results show a good consistency with conductivity\u2013temperature\u2013depth (CTD) measurements. The root mean square error (RMSE) of water temperature is 0.3494, 0.6838, 1.0236 and 1.0985 \u00b0C for layer 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. The fluctuations of measurement are further smoothed by the moving average, which decreases the RMSE of water temperature to 0.2858, 0.4742, 0.7719 and 0.9945 \u00b0C, respectively. This study illustrates the feasibility and high accuracy of the coastal acoustic tomography method in short-range water temperature measurement. Furthermore, 3D water temperature field profiling can be performed with combined analyzing in horizontal and vertical slices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164498","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,12]],"date-time":"2020-08-12T09:14:49Z","timestamp":1597223689000},"page":"4498","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Short-Range Water Temperature Profiling in a Lake with Coastal Acoustic Tomography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8096-0439","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haocai","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yong","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6812-9076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guangming","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Innovation Institute of Defense Technology, Fengtai District, Beijing 100071, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6128-0593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaneko","family":"Arata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xinyi","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Kaifu District, Changsha 410073, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-019-0550-0","article-title":"A High Spatial Resolution FBG Sensor Array for Measuring Ocean Temperature and Depth","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photonic Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pivato, M., Carniello, L., Viero, D.P., Soranzo, C., Defina, A., and Silvestri, S. (2020). Remote Sensing for Optimal Estimation of Water Temperature Dynamics in Shallow Tidal Environments. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12010051"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/0198-0149(79)90073-6","article-title":"Ocean acoustic tomography: A scheme for large scale monitoring","volume":"26","author":"Munk","year":"1979","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part A Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1989)019<1765:GOWAAM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global Ocean Warming: An Acoustic Measure?","volume":"19","author":"Munk","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dushaw, B.D., Worcester, P.F., Munk, W.H., Spindel, R.C., Mercer, J.A., Howe, B.M., Metzger, K., Birdsall, T.G., Andrew, R.K., and Dzieciuch, M.A. (2009). A decade of acoustic thermometry in the North Pacific Ocean. J. Geophys. Res.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC005124"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9157","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL070567","article-title":"Internal tide oceanic tomography","volume":"43","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"2211","article-title":"Evolution of the large-scale temperature field in the Greenland Sea during 1988\u20131989 from tomographic measurements","volume":"97","author":"Worcester","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1387092","article-title":"Multi-section matched-peak tomographic inversion with a moving source","volume":"110","author":"Skarsoulis","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2002.1002483","article-title":"Coastal acoustic tomography system and its field application","volume":"27","author":"Yamoaka","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaneko, A., and Zhu, X.H. (2020). Range-Average Measurement. Coastal Acoustic Tomography, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818507-0.00004-4"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2921","DOI":"10.1029\/2017JC013618","article-title":"Variation of residual current in the Seto Inland Sea driven by sea level difference between the Bungo and Kii Channels","volume":"123","author":"Taniguchi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2017.12.004","article-title":"Near 7-day response of ocean bottom pressure to atmospheric surface pressure and winds in the northern South China Sea","volume":"132","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7013","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JC012715","article-title":"Assimilation of coastal acoustic tomography data using an unstructured triangular grid ocean model for water with complex coastlines and islands","volume":"122","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7822","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JC012812","article-title":"Mapping of a typhoon-driven coastal upwelling by assimilating coastal acoustic tomography data","volume":"122","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H., Guo, Y., Wang, Z., Shen, Y., and Wei, Y. (2019). Water Temperature Observation by Coastal Acoustic Tomography in Artificial Upwelling Area. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19122655"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4288","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010676","article-title":"Tomographic mapping of a coastal upwelling and the associated diurnal internal tides in Hiroshima Bay, Japan","volume":"120","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1250\/ast.38.246","article-title":"Profiling measurement of internal tides in Bali Strait by reciprocal sound transmission","volume":"38","author":"Syamsudin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acoust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1250\/ast.37.10","article-title":"Acoustic measurement of the net transport through the Seto Inland Sea","volume":"37","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acoust. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expthermflusci.2010.06.005","article-title":"Experimental study on underwater acoustic imaging of 2-D temperature distribution around hot springs on floor of Lake Qiezishan, China","volume":"34","author":"Fan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3656","DOI":"10.1121\/1.4987918","article-title":"Vertical underwater acoustic tomography in an experimental basin","volume":"141","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Chen, M., Syamsudin, F., Kaneko, A., Gohda, N., Howe, B.M., Mutsuda, H., Dinan, A.H., Zheng, H., Huang, C.F., and Taniguchi, N. (2018). Real-time offshore coastal acoustic tomography enabled with mirror-transpond functionality. IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaneko, A., and Zhu, X.H. (2020). Inversion on a vertical slice. Coastal Acoustic Tomography, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818507-0.00007-X"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1121\/1.386920","article-title":"Nine-term equation for sound speed in the oceans","volume":"70","author":"Mackenzie","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Porter, M.B. (2011). The Bellhop Manual and User\u2019s Guide: Preliminary Draft, Heat, Light, and Sound Research, Inc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Zhu, X., Zhu, Z., Fan, X., Dong, M., and Zhang, Z. (2016, January 9\u201311). A coastal acoustic tomography experiment in the Qiongzhou Strait. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/OES China Ocean Acoustics (COA), Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/COA.2016.7535688"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/16\/4498\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:59:24Z","timestamp":1760176764000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/16\/4498"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,12]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s20164498"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20164498","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,12]]}}}