{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T17:27:24Z","timestamp":1761845244798,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,13]],"date-time":"2020-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1597276800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Music has been shown to be capable of improving runners\u2019 performance in treadmill and laboratory-based experiments. This paper evaluates a generative music system, namely HEARTBEATS, designed to create biosignal synchronous music in real-time according to an individual athlete\u2019s heartrate or cadence (steps per minute). The tempo, melody, and timbral features of the generated music are modulated according to biosensor input from each runner using a combination of PPG (Photoplethysmography) and GPS (Global Positioning System) from a wearable sensor, synchronized via Bluetooth. We compare the relative performance of athletes listening to music with heartrate and cadence synchronous tempos, across a randomized trial (N = 54) on a trail course with 76 ft of elevation. Participants were instructed to continue until their self-reported perceived effort went beyond an 18 using the Borg rating of perceived exertion. We found that cadence-synchronous music improved performance and decreased perceived effort in male runners. For female runners, cadence synchronous music improved performance but it was heartrate synchronous music which significantly reduced perceived effort and allowed them to run the longest of all groups tested. This work has implications for the future design and implementation of novel portable music systems and in music-assisted coaching.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164528","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,13]],"date-time":"2020-08-13T02:58:02Z","timestamp":1597287482000},"page":"4528","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["On Performance and Perceived Effort in Trail Runners Using Sensor Control to Generate Biosynchronous Music"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4793-8330","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Duncan","family":"Williams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Science &amp; Engineering, the University of Salford, the Crescent, Salford M5 4WT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3912-0582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Fazenda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computing, Science &amp; Engineering, the University of Salford, the Crescent, Salford M5 4WT, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1985-8547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria","family":"Williamson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts, 6002 Luzern, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gy\u00f6rgy","family":"Fazekas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4FZ, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-010-1597-1","article-title":"Effects of a trail running competition on muscular performance and efficiency in well-trained young and master athletes","volume":"110","author":"Easthope","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. 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