{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T11:21:44Z","timestamp":1780053704687,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]],"date-time":"2020-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1597795200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002341","name":"Academy of Finland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["328755"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["328755"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002341","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A rapidly growing number of vehicles in recent years cause long traffic jams and difficulty in the management of traffic in cities. One of the most significant reasons for increased traffic jams on the road is random parking in unauthorized and non-permitted places. In addition, managing of available parking places cannot achieve the expected reduction in traffic congestion related problems due to mismanagement, lack of real-time parking guidance to the drivers, and general ignorance. As the number of roads, highways and related resources has not increased significantly, a rising need for a smart, dynamic and effective parking solution is observed. Accordingly, with the use of multiple sensors, appropriate communication network and advanced processing capabilities of edge and cloud computing, a smart parking system can help manage parking effectively and make it easier for the vehicle owners. In this paper, we propose a multi-layer architecture for smart parking system consisting of multi-parametric parking slot sensor nodes, latest long-range low-power wireless communication technology and Edge-Cloud computation. The proposed system enables dynamic management of parking for large areas while providing useful information to the drivers about available parking locations and related services through near real-time monitoring of vehicles. Furthermore, we propose a dynamic pricing algorithm to yield maximum possible revenue for the parking authority and optimum parking slot availability for the drivers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20174669","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]],"date-time":"2020-08-19T09:22:31Z","timestamp":1597828951000},"page":"4669","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Smart Parking System with Dynamic Pricing, Edge-Cloud Computing and LoRa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2246-9910","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor Kathan","family":"Sarker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Future Technologies, University of Turku, 20500 Turku, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tuan Nguyen","family":"Gia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Future Technologies, University of Turku, 20500 Turku, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3339-0845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imed","family":"Ben Dhaou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Future Technologies, University of Turku, 20500 Turku, Finland"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qassim University, Unaizah 56453-2865, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Technology, ISIMM, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1793-2694","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomi","family":"Westerlund","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Future Technologies, University of Turku, 20500 Turku, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jain, V., Sharma, A., and Subramanian, L. (2012, January 11\u201312). Road Traffic Congestion in the Developing World. Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Symposium on Computing for Development, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2160601.2160616"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2337(1999)25:6<409::AID-AB2>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Traffic congestion, driver Stress, and driver aggression","volume":"25","author":"Hennessy","year":"1999","journal-title":"Aggress. Behav."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, Y., and LaVoie, N. (2014, January 27\u201331). Relationship between frustration justification and vehicle control Behaviors\u2014A simulator study. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA.","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931214581429"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elvik, R. (2009). The Handbook of Road Safety Measures, Emerald.","DOI":"10.1108\/9781848552517"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2020, June 25). Commuters in These Cities Spend More Than 8 Days a Year Stuck in Traffic. Available online: https:\/\/www.weforum.org\/agenda\/2019\/02\/commuters-in-these-cities-spend-more-than-8-days-a-year-stuck-in-traffic\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Talbot, N., and Lehn, R. (2019, August 30). The Impacts of Transport Emissions on Air Quality in Auckland\u2019s City Centre. Available online: http:\/\/knowledgeauckland.org.nz\/assets\/publications\/TR2018-028-Impacts-of-transport-emissions-Auckland-city-centre.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Diamandis, P.H. (2019, August 30). Imagining the Smart Cities of 2050. Available online: https:\/\/singularityhub.com\/2019\/03\/15\/imagining-the-smart-cities-of-2050\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Dhaou, I.B., Kondoro, A., Alsabhawi, A.H., Guedhami, O., and Tenhunen, H. (2018, January 11\u201313). A Smart Parking Management System Using IoT Technology. Proceedings of the 22nd Conference of Open Innovations Association, Helsinki, Finland."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2805263","article-title":"Edge Computing for the Internet of Things: A Case Study","volume":"5","author":"Premsankar","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2020, January 30). nRF24 Series. Available online: https:\/\/www.nordicsemi.com\/Products\/Low-power-short-range-wireless\/nRF24-series."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2020, January 30). LoRaWAN Specification. Available online: https:\/\/net868.ru\/assets\/pdf\/LoRaWAN-v1.1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadhukhan, P. (2017, January 13\u201316). An IoT-based E-parking system for smart cities. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communications and Informatics (ICACCI), Udupi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICACCI.2017.8125982"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aydin, I., Karakose, M., and Karakose, E. (2017, January 19\u201321). A navigation and reservation based smart parking platform using genetic optimization for smart cities. Proceedings of the 2017 5th International Istanbul Smart Grid and Cities Congress and Fair (ICSG), Istanbul, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/SGCF.2017.7947615"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hainalkar, G.N., and Vanjale, M.S. (2017, January 15\u201316). Smart parking system with pre & post reservation, billing and traffic app. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control Systems (ICICCS), Madurai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCONS.2017.8250772"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grodi, R., Rawat, D.B., and Rios-Gutierrez, F. (April, January 30). Smart parking: Parking occupancy monitoring and visualization system for smart cities. Proceedings of the SoutheastCon 2016, Norfolk, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SECON.2016.7506721"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramaswamy, P. (2016, January 8\u20139). IoT smart parking system for reducing green house gas emission. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Recent Trends in Information Technology (ICRTIT), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRTIT.2016.7569513"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, M., Dong, H., Li, X., Song, L., and Pang, D. (2017, January 20\u201322). A novel parking system designed for smart cities. Proceedings of the 2017 Chinese Automation Congress (CAC), Jinan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CAC.2017.8243373"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanteti, D., Srikar, D.V.S., and Ramesh, T.K. (2017, January 6\u20138). Smart parking system for commercial stretch in cities. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Communication and Signal Processing (ICCSP), Chennai, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCSP.2017.8286588"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Telles, E., and Meduri, P. (2017, January 14\u201316). SParkSys: A Framework for Smart Parking Systems. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence (CSCI), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSCI.2017.244"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2881008","article-title":"The Sensable City: A Survey on the Deployment and Management for Smart City Monitoring","volume":"21","author":"Du","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, N., Hassan, M., Nguyen, H.M., and Kim, D. (2017, January 25\u201330). GS1 Global Smart Parking System: One Architecture to Unify Them All. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Services Computing (SCC), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCC.2017.69"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160ilar, J., R\u016f\u017ei\u010dka, J., B\u011blinov\u00e0, Z., Langr, M., and Hlubu\u010dkov\u00e1, K. (2018, January 24\u201325). Smart parking in the smart city application. Proceedings of the 2018 Smart City Symposium Prague (SCSP), Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/SCSP.2018.8402667"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hassoune, K., Dachry, W., Moutaouakkil, F., and Medromi, H. (2016, January 19\u201320). Smart parking systems: A survey. Proceedings of the 2016 11th International Conference on Intelligent Systems: Theories and Applications (SITA), Mohammedia, Morocco.","DOI":"10.1109\/SITA.2016.7772297"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2013.6549279","article-title":"Gearing resource-poor mobile devices with powerful clouds: Architectures, challenges, and applications","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2019, October 25). NB-IoT vs. LoRa vs. Sigfox. Available online: https:\/\/www.link-labs.com\/blog\/nb-iot-vs-lora-vs-sigfox."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luque, L., Michel-Torres, D.A., Lopez-Neri, E., Carlos-Mancilla, M.A., and Gonz\u00e1lez-Jim\u00e9nez, L.E. (2020). IoT Smart Parking System based on the Visual-Aided Smart Vehicle Presence Sensor: SPIN-V. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20051476"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Jiao, L., Wang, L., and Liu, F. (May, January 29). An Online Market Mechanism for Edge Emergency Demand Response via Cloudlet Control. Proceedings of the IEEE INFOCOM 2019\u2014IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2019.8737574"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2020, January 15). Extreme Range Links: LoRa 868\/900 MHz SX1272 LoRa Module for Arduino Waspmote and Raspberry Pi. Available online: https:\/\/www.cooking-hacks.com."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3097","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2878942","article-title":"Low Overhead Scheduling LoRa Transmissions for Improved Scalability","volume":"6","author":"Haxhibeqiri","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sallum, E., Pereira, N., Alves, M., and Santos, M. (2020, January 26\u201328). Performance optimization on LoRa networks through assigning radio parameters. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Buenos Aires, Argentina.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIT45562.2020.9067310"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, V.K., Pe\u00f1a Queralta, J., Gia, T.N., Tenhunen, H., and Westerlund, T. (2019, January 10\u201313). A Survey on LoRa for IoT: Integrating Edge Computing. Proceedings of the 2019 Fourth International Conference on Fog and Mobile Edge Computing (FMEC), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/FMEC.2019.8795313"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, V.K., Gia, T.N., Tenhunen, H., and Westerlund, T. (2020, January 7\u201311). Lightweight Security Algorithms for Resource-constrained IoT-based Sensor Nodes. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications 2020, Dublin, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC40277.2020.9149359"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2018.04.019","article-title":"Design and analysis of authenticated key agreement scheme in cloud-assisted cyber\u2013physical systems","volume":"108","author":"Challa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2018.2850780","article-title":"ASAP: An Anonymous Smart-Parking and Payment Scheme in Vehicular Networks","volume":"17","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Depend. Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34275","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2904972","article-title":"SPA: Smart Parking Algorithm Based on Driver Behavior and Parking Traffic Predictions","volume":"7","author":"Lin","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"EPA (2019, December 09). European Parking Association. Available online: https:\/\/www.europeanparking.eu."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"ParkiFi (2019, November 05). Dynamic Pricing for Parking. Available online: https:\/\/www.parkifi.com\/blog\/dynamic-pricing-for-parking."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70172","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2880972","article-title":"Towards Smart Parking Based on Fog Computing","volume":"6","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Cormen, T.H., Leiserson, C.E., Rivest, R.L., and Stein, C. (2009). Introduction to Algorithms, The MIT Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salomon, D., and Motta, G. (2010). Handbook of Data Compression, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84882-903-9"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600613","article-title":"Understanding the Limits of LoRaWAN","volume":"55","author":"Adelantado","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Invensense (2020, February 20). MPU9250. Available online: https:\/\/www.invensense.com\/products\/motion-tracking\/9-axis\/mpu-9250."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Sensortec, B. (2020, February 20). BME280. Available online: https:\/\/www.bosch-sensortec.com\/bst\/products\/all_products\/bme280."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"National Institute of Standards and Technology (2020, February 04). Specification for the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Available online: https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/FIPS\/NIST.FIPS.197.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) (2020, February 04). ChaCha20 and Poly1305 for IETF Protocols. Available online: https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc7539."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Weatherley, R. (2019, December 10). Arduino Cryptography Library. Available online: https:\/\/rweather.github.io\/arduinolibs\/crypto.html."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2019, November 22). Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+. Available online: http:\/\/www.dragino.com\/products\/lora\/item\/106-lora-gps-hat.html."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Dragino (2019, November 22). LoRa GPS HAT for Raspberry Pi. Available online: http:\/\/www.dragino.com\/products\/lora\/item\/106-lora-gps-hat.html."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2020, March 30). LZW Compression. Available online: https:\/\/rosettacode.org\/wiki\/LZW_compression."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Linodians (2020, April 10). Cloud Hosting & Linux Servers|Linode. Available online: https:\/\/www.linode.com."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, V.K., Jiang, M., Gia, T.N., Anzanpour, A., Rahmani, A.M., and Liljeberg, P. (2017, January 13\u201315). Portable Multipurpose Bio-signal Acquisition and Wireless Streaming Device for Wearables. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Glassboro, NJ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS.2017.7894053"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"OpenBSD Project (2020, July 07). OpenSSH Features. Available online: https:\/\/www.openssh.com\/features.html."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farahani, S. (2008). Chapter 6\u2014Battery Life Analysis. ZigBee Wireless Networks and Transceivers, Newnes.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7506-8393-7.00006-6"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Eiter, T., and Mannila, H. (1994). Computing Discrete Fr\u00e9chet Distance, Christian Doppler Laboratory for Expert Systems. Technical Report (CD-TR 94\/64)."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Pavel, S. (2009). Dynamic Time Warping Algorithm Review, Information and Computer Science Department University of Hawaii."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/17\/4669\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:02:56Z","timestamp":1760176976000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/17\/4669"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s20174669"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20174669","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,19]]}}}