{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T16:36:38Z","timestamp":1783096598371,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,2]],"date-time":"2020-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Secretar\u00eda de Investigaci\u00f3n y Posgrado del Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico \tNacional (SIP-IPN)","award":["2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to solve the trajectory tracking task in a wheeled mobile robot (WMR), a dynamic three-level controller is presented in this paper. The controller considers the mechanical structure, actuators, and power stage subsystems. Such a controller is designed as follows: At the high level is a dynamic control for the WMR (differential drive type). At the medium level is a PI current control for the actuators (DC motors). Lastly, at the low level is a differential flatness-based control for the power stage (DC\/DC Buck power converters). The feasibility, robustness, and performance in closed-loop of the proposed controller are validated on a DDWMR prototype through Matlab-Simulink, the real-time interface ControlDesk, and a DS1104 board. The obtained results are experimentally assessed with a hierarchical tracking controller, recently reported in literature, that was also designed on the basis of the mechanical structure, actuators, and power stage subsystems. Although both controllers are robust when parametric disturbances are taken into account, the dynamic three-level tracking controller presented in this paper is better than the hierarchical tracking controller reported in literature.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20174959","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,2]],"date-time":"2020-09-02T09:29:28Z","timestamp":1599038968000},"page":"4959","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A Novel Dynamic Three-Level Tracking Controller for Mobile Robots Considering Actuators and Power Stage Subsystems: Experimental Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7036-0990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Rafael","family":"Garc\u00eda-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Divisi\u00f3n de Ingenier\u00eda Mecatr\u00f3nica, Tecnol\u00f3gico de Estudios Superiores de Huixquilucan, Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, Estado de M\u00e9xico 52773, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2555-6262","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvador","family":"Tavera-Mosqueda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Mecatr\u00f3nica &amp; Energ\u00eda Renovable, Centro de Innovaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico en C\u00f3mputo, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 07700, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7540-489X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram\u00f3n","family":"Silva-Ortigoza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Mecatr\u00f3nica &amp; Energ\u00eda Renovable, Centro de Innovaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico en C\u00f3mputo, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 07700, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7016-2561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victor Manuel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Guzm\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ingenier\u00eda, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Quer\u00e9taro, Quer\u00e9taro 76010, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1435-6908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Marciano-Melchor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Mecatr\u00f3nica &amp; Energ\u00eda Renovable, Centro de Innovaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico en C\u00f3mputo, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 07700, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2005-5979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 de Jes\u00fas","family":"Rubio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Secci\u00f3n de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigaci\u00f3n, ESIME Azcapotzalco, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 02250, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4236-6903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mario","family":"Ponce-Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Electr\u00f3nica, CENIDET, Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, Morelos 62490, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5622-8747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Bola\u00f1os","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Mecatr\u00f3nica &amp; Energ\u00eda Renovable, Centro de Innovaci\u00f3n y Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico en C\u00f3mputo, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, Ciudad de M\u00e9xico 07700, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1438-6384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jes\u00fas","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Divisi\u00f3n de Ingenier\u00eda Mecatr\u00f3nica, Tecnol\u00f3gico de Estudios Superiores de Huixquilucan, Tecnol\u00f3gico Nacional de M\u00e9xico, Estado de M\u00e9xico 52773, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209","DOI":"10.1109\/TLA.2012.6418124","article-title":"Wheeled mobile robots: A review","volume":"10","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Lat. 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