{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T03:48:49Z","timestamp":1780372129163,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]],"date-time":"2020-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1599523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010661","name":"Horizon 2020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["722134"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["722134"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This work aims to compare quantitatively different nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques and data fusion features for the evaluation of adhesive bonding quality. Adhesively bonded composite-epoxy single-lap joints have been investigated with advanced ultrasonic nondestructive testing and induction thermography. Bonded structures with artificial debonding defects in three different case studies have been investigated: debonding with release film inclusion, debonding with brass film-large, debonding with brass film-small. After completing preprocessing of the data for data fusion, the feature matrices, depending on the interface reflection peak-to-peak amplitude and the principal component analysis, have been extracted from ultrasonic and thermography inspection results, respectively. The obtained feature matrices have been used as the source in basic (average, difference, weighted average, Hadamard product) and statistical (Dempster\u2013Shafer rule of combination) data fusion algorithms. The defect detection performances of advanced nondestructive testing techniques, in addition to data fusion algorithms have been evaluated quantitatively by receiver operating characteristics. In conclusion, it is shown that data fusion can increase the detectability of artificial debonding in single-lap joints.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20185127","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,9]],"date-time":"2020-09-09T09:01:09Z","timestamp":1599642069000},"page":"5127","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Evaluation of Bonding Quality with Advanced Nondestructive Testing (NDT) and Data Fusion"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Bengisu","family":"Yilmaz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ultrasound Research Institute, Kaunas University of Technology, K. Barsausko St. 59, LT-51423 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2457-9331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdoulaye","family":"Ba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Research in Electric Power of Nantes Atlantique (IREENA), University of Nantes, 37 Boulevard de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 BP-406, CEDEX, 44602 Saint-Nazaire, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Jasiuniene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ultrasound Research Institute, Kaunas University of Technology, K. Barsausko St. 59, LT-51423 Kaunas, Lithuania"},{"name":"Department of Electronics Engineering, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu St. 48, LT-51367 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huu-Kien","family":"Bui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Research in Electric Power of Nantes Atlantique (IREENA), University of Nantes, 37 Boulevard de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 BP-406, CEDEX, 44602 Saint-Nazaire, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G\u00e9rard","family":"Berthiau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Research in Electric Power of Nantes Atlantique (IREENA), University of Nantes, 37 Boulevard de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 BP-406, CEDEX, 44602 Saint-Nazaire, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2017.04.004","article-title":"Image fusion of ultrasonic and thermographic inspection of carbon\/epoxy patches bonded to an aluminum plate","volume":"90","author":"Daryabor","year":"2017","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2019.107461","article-title":"Evaluation of debonding in CFRP-epoxy adhesive single-lap joints using eddy current pulse-compression thermography","volume":"178","author":"Yi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yilmaz, B., Ba, A., Jasiuniene, E., Bui, H.K., and Berthiau, G. (2019, January 19\u201321). Comparison of different nondestructive testing techniques for bonding quality evaluation. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 5th International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Torino, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace.2019.8869692"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2016.10.013","article-title":"Controlled reduced-strength epoxy-aluminium joints validated by ultrasonic and mechanical measurements","volume":"72","author":"Galy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarselli, G., and Nicassio, F. (2017, January 25\u201329). Analysis of debonding in single lap joints based on employment of ultrasounds. Proceedings of the SPIE Smart Structures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2260041"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2016.01.059","article-title":"Assessment of the effect of defects on mechanical properties of adhesive bonded joints by using non destructive methods","volume":"91","author":"Tamborrino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Part B Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1179\/1743289814Y.0000000083","article-title":"Assessment of the imperfect bonding of adhesively bonded U-joints using ultrasonic inspection","volume":"43","author":"Katsiropoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Plast. Rubber Compos."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2016.09.021","article-title":"Tensile Response of Adhesively Bonded Composite-to-composite Single-lap Joints in the Presence of Bond Deficiency","volume":"59","author":"Bhanushali","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2019.02.009","article-title":"Ultrasonic nondestructive testing of complex titanium\/carbon fibre composite joints","volume":"95","author":"Samaitis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1163\/156856191X00530","article-title":"An ultrasonic interface layer model for bond evaluation","volume":"5","author":"Jiao","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022584822730","article-title":"The effect of compressive loading on the ultrasonic detectability of kissing bonds in adhesive joints","volume":"21","author":"Brotherhood","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, J., Wu, B., and He, C.-F. (November, January 30). Longitudinal wave propagation in adhesive structure under different forms of interfaces. Proceedings of the 2015 Symposium on Piezoelectricity, Acoustic Waves, and Device Applications (SPAWDA), Jinan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPAWDA.2015.7364479"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2006.05.112","article-title":"Air-coupled ultrasonic investigation of multi-layered composite materials","volume":"44","author":"Kazys","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaal, M., Dohse, E., Bartusch, J., K\u00f6ppe, E., Kreutzbruck, M., Hillger, W., and Amos, J. (2014, January 6\u201310). Ultrasonic Testing of Adhesively Bonded Joints Using Air-Coupled Cellular Polypropylene Transducers 1. Cellular polypropylene transducers for air-coupled ultrasonic testing. Proceedings of the ECNDT 2014 - 11th European Conference on Non-Destructive Testing, Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4864857"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marks, R., Clarke, A., Featherston, C., Paget, C., and Pullin, R. (2016). Lamb Wave Interaction with Adhesively Bonded Stiffeners and Disbonds Using 3D Vibrometry. Appl. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/app6010012"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2015.10.046","article-title":"Guided wave scattering behavior in composite bonded assemblies","volume":"136","author":"Sherafat","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cho, H., Hara, Y., and Matsuo, T. (2014). Evaluation of the thickness and bond quality of three-layered media using zero-group-velocity lamb waves. J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 520.","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/520\/1\/012023"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wavemoti.2017.05.007","article-title":"Scattering of guided waves by defective adhesive bonds in multilayer anisotropic plates","volume":"74","author":"Leiderman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wave Motion"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"46","article-title":"Kissing bond detection in structural adhesive joints using nonlinear dynamic characteristics","volume":"70","author":"Nagy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2009.02.002","article-title":"Measurement of the ultrasonic nonlinearity of kissing bonds in adhesive joints","volume":"42","author":"Yan","year":"2009","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarselli, G., Ciampa, F., Ginzburg, D., and Meo, M. (2015, January 8\u201312). Nondestructive testing techniques based on nonlinear methods for assessment of debonding in single lap joints. Proceedings of the SPIE Smart Structures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2085654"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solodov, I., Kreutzbruck, M., and S\u00e9gur, D. (2019, January 10\u201312). Monitoring of bonding quality in CFRP composite laminates by measurements of local vibration nonlinearity. Proceedings of the 12th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring: Enabling Intelligent Life-Cycle Health Management for Industry Internet of Things (IIOT), Stanford, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.12783\/shm2019\/32366"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3589","DOI":"10.1177\/0021998318766595","article-title":"Identification of an effective nondestructive technique for bond defect determination in laminate composites\u2014A technical review","volume":"52","author":"Asif","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Compos. Mater."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijadhadh.2016.12.002","article-title":"Lamb waves characterization of adhesion levels in aluminum\/epoxy bi-layers with different cohesive and adhesive properties","volume":"74","author":"Gauthier","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Adhes. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Grosso, M., Marinho, C.A., Nesteruk, D.A., Rebello, J.M.A., Soares, S.D., and Vavilov, V.P. (May, January 29). Evaluating quality of adhesive joints in glass fiber plastic piping by using active thermal NDT. Proceedings of the SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing, Baltimore, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"051007","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2741277","article-title":"Review and comparison of shearography and pulsed thermography for adhesive bond evaluation","volume":"46","author":"Hung","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2008.02.010","article-title":"Pulsed thermography for nondestructive evaluation and damage growth monitoring of bonded repairs","volume":"88","author":"Genest","year":"2009","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2015.11.008","article-title":"Pulsed phase thermography imaging of fatigue-loaded composite adhesively bonded joints","volume":"79","author":"Shin","year":"2016","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1949","DOI":"10.1109\/TMAG.2013.2241037","article-title":"3-D modeling of thermo inductive non destructive testing method applied to multilayer composite","volume":"49","author":"Bui","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Magn."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2301168","article-title":"Impact damage detection and identification using eddy current pulsed thermography through integration of PCA and ICA","volume":"14","author":"Cheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ehrhart, B., Valeske, B., and Bockenheimer, C. (2013). Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of aerospace composites. Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) of Polymer Matrix Composites: Techniques and Applications, Woodhead Publishing.","DOI":"10.1533\/9780857093554.2.220"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kizilta\u015f, G., Papila, M., Yilmaz, B., and Bilge, K. (2020). Challenges in Micro-CT Characterization of Composites. Micro-Computed Tomogr. Med. Eng., 225\u2013246.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-16641-0_14"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Bossi, R., Lahrman, D., Sokol, D., and Walters, C. (2011, January 28\u201329). Laser Bond Inspection for adhesive bond strength. Proceedings of the International SAMPE Technical Conference, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesa.2013.05.015","article-title":"A study of composite material damage induced by laser shock waves","volume":"53","author":"Ecault","year":"2013","journal-title":"Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Marty, P., Desai, N., and Andersson, J. (September, January 30). NDT of kissing bond in aeronautical structures. Proceedings of the 16th World Conference on NDT, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1080\/09349849509409560","article-title":"Theory and implementation of NDT data fusion","volume":"6","author":"Gros","year":"1995","journal-title":"Res. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2017.08.005","article-title":"Investigation of dissimilar metal joints with nanoparticle fillers","volume":"92","author":"Dragatogiannis","year":"2017","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7771","DOI":"10.3390\/s91007771","article-title":"Advances in multi-sensor data fusion: Algorithms and applications","volume":"9","author":"Dong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2435","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2007.908139","article-title":"Survey: State of the art in NDE data fusion techniques","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2011.04.006","article-title":"NDE data fusion to improve the evaluation of concrete structures","volume":"44","author":"Ploix","year":"2011","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1","article-title":"Clustering Based Multi Sensor Data Fusion for Honeycomb Detection in Concrete","volume":"34","author":"Shokouhi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-014-0232-1","article-title":"Image Fusion for Improved Detection of Near-Surface Defects in NDT-CE Using Unsupervised Clustering Methods","volume":"33","author":"Niederleithinger","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2015.01.003","article-title":"Multi sensor data fusion approach for automatic honeycomb detection in concrete","volume":"71","author":"Shokouhi","year":"2015","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-018-0529-6","article-title":"Porosity Determination of Carbon and Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymers Using Phase-Contrast Imaging","volume":"38","author":"Gusenbauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compscitech.2013.04.013","article-title":"Damage quantification in polymer composites using a hybrid NDT approach","volume":"83","author":"Cuadra","year":"2013","journal-title":"Compos. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2020.102246","article-title":"Two-stream convolutional neural network for nondestructive subsurface defect detection via similarity comparison of lock-in thermography signals","volume":"112","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horn, R.A., and Zhang, F. (2005). Basic Properties of the Schur Complement. The Schur Complement and Its Applications, Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-387-24273-2_2"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.2307\/2529769","article-title":"A Mathematical Theory of Evidence","volume":"32","author":"Smith","year":"1976","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177698950","article-title":"Upper and Lower Probabilities Induced by a Multivalued Mapping","volume":"38","author":"Dempster","year":"1967","journal-title":"Ann. Math. Stat."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brierley, N., Tippetts, T., and Cawley, P. (2014). Data fusion for automated nondestructive inspection. Proc. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., 470.","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.2014.0167"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/18\/5127\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:08:07Z","timestamp":1760177287000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/18\/5127"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s20185127"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20185127","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,8]]}}}