{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T07:09:56Z","timestamp":1781680196821,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]],"date-time":"2020-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1600646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The domain of underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) had received a lot of attention recently due to its significant advanced capabilities in the ocean surveillance, marine monitoring and application deployment for detecting underwater targets. However, the literature have not compiled the state-of-the-art along its direction to discover the recent advancements which were fuelled by the underwater sensor technologies. Hence, this paper offers the newest analysis on the available evidences by reviewing studies in the past five years on various aspects that support network activities and applications in UWSN environments. This work was motivated by the need for robust and flexible solutions that can satisfy the requirements for the rapid development of the underwater wireless sensor networks. This paper identifies the key requirements for achieving essential services as well as common platforms for UWSN. It also contributes a taxonomy of the critical elements in UWSNs by devising a classification on architectural elements, communications, routing protocol and standards, security, and applications of UWSNs. Finally, the major challenges that remain open are presented as a guide for future research directions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20185393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]],"date-time":"2020-09-21T08:18:01Z","timestamp":1600676281000},"page":"5393","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":177,"title":["A Survey on Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks: Requirements, Taxonomy, Recent Advances, and Open Research Challenges"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Salmah","family":"Fattah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"},{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullah","family":"Gani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"},{"name":"Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4324-8965","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ismail","family":"Ahmedy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohd Yamani Idna","family":"Idris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer System and Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7611-9540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ibrahim Abaker","family":"Targio Hashem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computing and Informatics, Department of Computer Science, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, UAE"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1109\/48.820733","article-title":"The state of the art in underwater acoustic telemetry","volume":"25","author":"Kilfoyle","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Stojanovic, M. (2019). Acoustic (underwater) communications. Encyclopedia of Telecommunications, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6470359","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/6470359","article-title":"Underwater wireless sensor networks: A review of recent issues and challenges","volume":"2019","author":"Awan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.7763\/IJCTE.2015.V7.929","article-title":"A survey on current underwater acoustic sensor network applications","volume":"7","author":"Murad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Theory Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896832","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/896832","article-title":"Underwater sensor network applications: A comprehensive survey","volume":"11","author":"Felemban","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jindal, H., Saxena, S., and Singh, S. (2014, January 11\u201313). Challenges and issues in underwater acoustics sensor networks: A review. Proceedings of the International Conference on Parallel, Distributed and Grid Computing, Solan, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/PDGC.2014.7030751"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.3390\/s140100795","article-title":"Underwater acoustic wireless sensor networks: Advances and future trends in physical, MAC and routing layers","volume":"14","author":"Climent","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2005.01.004","article-title":"Underwater acoustic sensor networks: Research challenges","volume":"3","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"31","article-title":"Design of Robotic Fish for Aquatic Environment Monitoring","volume":"117","author":"Maindalkar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2012.07.012","article-title":"An overview of the internet of underwater things","volume":"35","author":"Domingo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, P., Xu, Y., and Wu, F. (2016). Node self-deployment algorithm based on an uneven cluster with radius adjusting for underwater sensor networks. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010098"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"13","article-title":"Designing the Undersea Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communications Using UnderWater Acoustic MIMO Networks","volume":"2","author":"Lazaropoulos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, A., and Jenkins, L. (2008, January 6\u201310). Undersea wireless sensor network for ocean pollution prevention. Proceedings of the 2008 3rd International Conference on Communication Systems Software and Middleware and Workshops (COMSWARE\u201908), Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/COMSWA.2008.4554369"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.369","article-title":"Wireless Sensor Networks for monitoring underwater sediment transport","volume":"667","author":"Watt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Garcia, M., Sendra, S., Atenas, M., and Lloret, J. (2011). Underwater wireless ad-hoc networks: A survey. Mobile Ad Hoc Networks: Current Status and Future Trends, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zuba, M., Song, A., and Cui, J.H. (2014, January 3\u20135). Exploring parabolic equation models for improved underwater network simulations. Proceedings of the Underwater Communications and Networking (UComms), Sestri Levante, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/UComms.2014.7017151"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"28","article-title":"Simulation and Experimentation Platforms for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks: Advancements and Challenges","volume":"50","author":"Luo","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv. (CSUR)"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014014","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.13.014014","article-title":"Nonresonant Metasurface for Fast Decoding in Acoustic Communications","volume":"13","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2019.101935","article-title":"Underwater optical wireless communications, networking, and localization: A survey","volume":"94","author":"Saeed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2009.07.011","article-title":"Effects of ambient and boat noise on hearing and communication in three fish species living in a marine protected area (Miramare, Italy)","volume":"58","author":"Codarin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, W., Li, D., Tan, Y., Chen, J., and Sun, T. (2008, January 1\u20133). Architecture of underwater acoustic sensor networks: A survey. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Intelligent Networks and Intelligent Systems, Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICINIS.2008.145"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiao, Y. (2010). Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420067125"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3445","DOI":"10.1002\/dac.3445","article-title":"Localization under anchor node uncertainty for underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"31","author":"Mridula","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2588518","article-title":"Sensor placement for underwater source localization with fixed distances","volume":"13","author":"Fang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2584","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2015.2389220","article-title":"Collision tolerant and collision free packet scheduling for underwater acoustic localization","volume":"14","author":"Ramezani","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-016-3175-2","article-title":"A localization scheme for underwater sensor networks without Time Synchronization","volume":"88","author":"Beniwal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2015.11.018","article-title":"Self-localization of autonomous underwater vehicles with accurate sound travel time solution","volume":"50","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314049","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/314049","article-title":"A survey on deployment algorithms in underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"9","author":"Han","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4405","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2537331","article-title":"A Dynamic Approach to Sensor Network Deployment for Mobile-Target Detection in Unstructured, Expanding Search Areas","volume":"16","author":"Vilela","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"672768","article-title":"Node placement for long bounded belt complete 2-coverage in wireless sensor networks","volume":"2015","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2013.121813.130198","article-title":"Curve-based deployment for barrier coverage in wireless sensor networks","volume":"13","author":"He","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1109\/TPDS.2012.141","article-title":"Dynamic coverage of mobile sensor networks","volume":"24","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Parallel Distrib. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, B. (2010). Coverage Control in Sensor Networks, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84996-059-5"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2011.2175746","article-title":"Design of wireless sensor networks for mobile target detection","volume":"20","author":"Amaldi","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15262","DOI":"10.3390\/s140815262","article-title":"Particle swarm inspired underwater sensor self-deployment","volume":"14","author":"Du","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Felamban, M., Shihada, B., and Jamshaid, K. (2013, January 25\u201328). Optimal node placement in underwater wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the IEEE 27th International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA), Barcelona, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINA.2013.40"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, S., Liu, S., and Jiang, P. (2016). A High-Efficiency Uneven Cluster Deployment Algorithm Based on Network Layered for Event Coverage in UWSNs. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122103"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2015.2494918","article-title":"Optimal sensor placement for acoustic underwater target positioning with range-only measurements","volume":"41","author":"Pascoal","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7242","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2597544","article-title":"Dynamic cluster members scheduling for target tracking in sensor networks","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15525","DOI":"10.3390\/s140815525","article-title":"Efficient sensor placement optimization using gradient descent and probabilistic coverage","volume":"14","author":"Akbarzadeh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1145\/2240092.2240095","article-title":"Optimal multiobjective placement of distributed sensors against moving targets","volume":"8","author":"Wettergren","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2016.10.010","article-title":"MobiBar: An autonomous deployment algorithm for barrier coverage with mobile sensors","volume":"54","author":"Silvestri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, P., Liu, J., Ruan, B., Jiang, L., and Wu, F. (2016). A new node deployment and location dispatch algorithm for underwater sensor networks. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010082"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4034","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2440416","article-title":"Extending the lifetime of dynamic underwater acoustic sensor networks using multi-population harmony search algorithm","volume":"16","author":"Lin","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.3233\/AIS-2010-0087","article-title":"Tracking with high-density, large-scale wireless sensor networks","volume":"2","author":"Merico","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Ambient Intell. Smart Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-012-1013-4","article-title":"Towards smart city: M2M communications with software agent intelligence","volume":"67","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"7373","article-title":"Software-defined industrial internet of things in the context of industry 4.0","volume":"16","author":"Wan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1109\/MITP.2008.10","article-title":"Harnessing green IT: Principles and practices","volume":"10","author":"Murugesan","year":"2008","journal-title":"IT Prof."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2011.0214","article-title":"Underwater sensor networks: Applications, advances and challenges","volume":"370","author":"Heidemann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.7588231","article-title":"On the design of green protocols for underwater sensor networks","volume":"54","author":"Coutinho","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1145\/2534169.2486019","article-title":"B4: Experience with a globally-deployed software defined WAN","volume":"43","author":"Jain","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leighton, T.G. (1994). The Acoustic Bubble, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1121\/1.410082"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Lurton, X. (2002). An Introduction to Underwater Acoustics: Principles and Applications, Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Syed, A.A., Ye, W., Heidemann, J., and Krishnamachari, B. (2007, January 14). Understanding spatio-temporal uncertainty in medium access with ALOHA protocols. Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Underwater Networks, Montr\u00e9al, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/1287812.1287822"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1936","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1909155","article-title":"Acoustic Ambient Noise in Ocean\u2013Spectra and Sources","volume":"34","author":"Wenz","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"410","article-title":"Underwater ambient noise","volume":"7","author":"Knudsen","year":"1948","journal-title":"J. Mar. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11188","DOI":"10.3390\/s111211188","article-title":"Modeling the behavior of an underwater acoustic relative positioning system based on complementary set of sequences","volume":"11","author":"Aparicio","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2012.2232492","article-title":"Model-based adaptive behavior framework for optimal acoustic communication and sensing by marine robots","volume":"38","author":"Schneider","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nams, D., Seto, M.L., and Leonard, J.J. (2015, January 19\u201322). On-line adaptation of underwater acoustic transmission rates to optimize communications for collaborative AUV missions. Proceedings of the OCEANS\u201915 MTS\/IEEE Washington, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS.2015.7404425"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paull, L., Huang, G., Seto, M., and Leonard, J.J. (2015, January 26\u201330). Communication-Constrained Multi-AUV Cooperative SLAM. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139227"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s11370-017-0240-y","article-title":"Decentralized behavior-based formation control of multiple robots considering obstacle avoidance","volume":"11","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Intell. Serv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2018.2797558","article-title":"An Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Data-Driven Control Strategy for Target Tracking","volume":"43","author":"Ferri","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, T., and Schmidt, H. (2018, January 28\u201330). NETSIM: A Realtime Virtual Ocean Hardware-in-the-loop Acoustic Modem Network Simulator. Proceedings of the 2018 Fourth Underwater Communications and Networking Conference (UComms), Lerici, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/UComms.2018.8493188"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cma.2018.01.004","article-title":"Stochastic time-optimal path-planning in uncertain, strong, and dynamic flows","volume":"333","author":"Subramani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSM.2017.2679482","article-title":"Joint Routing and Energy Management in UnderWater Acoustic Sensor Networks","volume":"14","author":"Bouabdallah","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Netw. Serv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3303","DOI":"10.1002\/dac.3303","article-title":"DRP: An energy-efficient routing protocol for underwater sensor networks","volume":"30","author":"Chao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2017.01.011","article-title":"Energy efficient chain based routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"92","author":"Rani","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Javaid, N., Shah, M., Ahmad, A., Imran, M., Khan, M.I., and Vasilakos, A.V. (2016). An enhanced energy balanced data transmission protocol for underwater acoustic sensor networks. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040487"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4072","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2437904","article-title":"E-CARP: An energy efficient routing protocol for UWSNs in the internet of underwater things","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majid, A., Azam, I., Waheed, A., Zain-ul Abidin, M., Hafeez, T., Khan, Z.A., Qasim, U., and Javaid, N. (2016, January 23\u201325). An energy efficient and balanced energy consumption cluster based routing protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the IEEE 30th International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications (AINA), Crans-Montana, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/AINA.2016.165"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sher, A., Javaid, N., Azam, I., Ahmad, H., Abdul, W., Ghouzali, S., Niaz, I.A., and Khan, F.A. (2017). Monitoring square and circular fields with sensors using energy-efficient cluster-based routing for underwater wireless sensor networks. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw., 13.","DOI":"10.1177\/1550147717717189"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y.D., Wu, D.R., Chen, W., and Shih, K.P. (2015, January 19\u201322). A Self-Adaptive Cooperative Routing Protocol for underwater acoustic sensor networks. Proceedings of the OCEANS\u201915 MTS\/IEEE Washington, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.23919\/OCEANS.2015.7404383"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2014.09.016","article-title":"An adaptive routing protocol in underwater sparse acoustic sensor networks","volume":"34","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213012","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/213012","article-title":"Iamctd: Improved adaptive mobility of courier nodes in threshold-optimized dbr protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"10","author":"Javaid","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hafeez, T., Javaid, N., Hameed, A.R., Sher, A., Khan, Z.A., and Qasim, U. (2016, January 6\u20138). AVN-AHH-VBF: Avoiding void node with adaptive hop-by-hop vector based forwarding for underwater wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Innovative Mobile and Internet Services in Ubiquitous Computing (IMIS), Fukuoka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMIS.2016.131"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Z., Ma, Y., Su, Y., Li, S., and Fu, X. (2017). A Q-Learning-Based Delay-Aware Routing Algorithm to Extend the Lifetime of Underwater Sensor Networks. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071660"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Coutinho, R.W., Boukerche, A., Vieira, L.F., and Loureiro, A.A. (2017, January 21\u201325). EnOR: Energy balancing routing protocol for underwater sensor networks. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996852"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Javaid, N., Sher, A., Abdul, W., Niaz, I.A., Almogren, A., and Alamri, A. (2017). Cooperative Opportunistic Pressure Based Routing for Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17030629"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2017.07.016","article-title":"Void handling using Geo-Opportunistic Routing in underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"64","author":"Kanthimathi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Electr. Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2015.2423677","article-title":"Geographic and opportunistic routing for underwater sensor networks","volume":"65","author":"Coutinho","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2015.01.005","article-title":"Geographic multipath routing based on geospatial division in duty-cycled underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"59","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdallah, A.E., Abdallah, E.E., Bsoul, M., and Otoom, A.F. (2016). Randomized geographic-based routing with nearly guaranteed delivery for three-dimensional ad hoc network. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw., 12.","DOI":"10.1177\/1550147716671255"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2017.03.024","article-title":"Cross-layer protocol stack development for three-dimensional underwater Acoustic Sensor Network","volume":"92","author":"Dhongdi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Wang, S., Bu, R., and Zhang, E. (2017). A Novel Cross-Layer Routing Protocol Based on Network Coding for Underwater Sensor Networks. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081821"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Sun, N., Han, G., Wu, T., Jiang, J., and Shu, L. (2015, January 19\u201320). A reliable and energy efficient VBF-improved cross-layer protocol for underwater acoustic sensor network. Proceedings of the 2015 11th International Conference on Heterogeneous Networking for Quality, Reliability, Security and Robustness (QSHINE), Taipei, Taiwan."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891410","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/891410","article-title":"Co-UWSN: Cooperative energy-efficient protocol for underwater WSNs","volume":"11","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/CC.2017.7961361","article-title":"Energy-efficient mobile data collection adopting node cooperation in an underwater acoustic sensor network","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70552","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2912917","article-title":"Selective Dynamic Coded Cooperative Communications for Multi-Hop Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1010","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2019.2907854","article-title":"A high-availability data collection scheme based on multi-AUVs for underwater sensor networks","volume":"19","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mobile Comput."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasir, H., Javaid, N., Ashraf, H., Manzoor, S., Khan, Z.A., Qasim, U., and Sher, M. (2014, January 8\u201310). CoDBR: Cooperative depth based routing for underwater wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the 2014 Ninth International Conference on Broadband and Wireless Computing, Communication and Applications, Guangdong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/BWCCA.2014.45"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89171","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2993544","article-title":"An Energy Optimization Clustering Scheme for Multi-Hop Underwater Acoustic Cooperative Sensor Networks","volume":"8","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7604163","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/7604163","article-title":"SPARCO: Stochastic performance analysis with reliability and cooperation for underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"2016","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2014.09.012","article-title":"Utilizing kinematics and selective sweeping in reinforcement learning-based routing algorithms for underwater networks","volume":"34","author":"Plate","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2010.28","article-title":"QELAR: A machine-learning-based adaptive routing protocol for energy-efficient and lifetime-extended underwater sensor networks","volume":"9","author":"Hu","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165531","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2953801","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning Based MAC Protocol (UW-ALOHA-Q) for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks","volume":"7","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez, J., Roman, R., and Alcaraz, C. (2009). Analysis of security threats, requirements, technologies and standards in wireless sensor networks. Foundations of Security Analysis and Design V, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-03829-7_10"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1145\/1464420.1464426","article-title":"Energy-efficient link-layer jamming attacks against wireless sensor network MAC protocols","volume":"5","author":"Law","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2178","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2011.0641","article-title":"Jamming in underwater sensor networks: Detection and mitigation","volume":"6","author":"Misra","year":"2012","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2635","DOI":"10.1002\/sec.507","article-title":"Vulnerabilities of underwater acoustic networks to denial-of-service jamming attacks","volume":"8","author":"Zuba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, R., and Rajasekaran, S. (2016, January 19\u201323). Data centric approach to analyzing security threats in underwater sensor networks. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2016 MTS\/IEEE Monterey, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2016.7761267"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, G., Liu, L., Jiang, J., Shu, L., and Rodrigues, J.J. (2016). A collaborative secure localization algorithm based on trust model in underwater wireless sensor networks. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16020229"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600502CM","article-title":"A trust cloud model for underwater wireless sensor networks","volume":"55","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8763528","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/8763528","article-title":"An ultra-lightweight encryption scheme in underwater acoustic networks","volume":"2016","author":"Peng","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.7402258","article-title":"RSS-based secret key generation in underwater acoustic networks: Advantages, challenges, and performance improvements","volume":"54","author":"Luo","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lon\u010dar, I., Babi\u0107, A., Arbanas, B., Vasiljevi\u0107, G., Petrovi\u0107, T., Bogdan, S., and Mi\u0161kovi\u0107, N. (2019). A Heterogeneous Robotic Swarm for Long-Term Monitoring of Marine Environments. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9071388"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saeed, H., Ali, S., Rashid, S., Qaisar, S., and Felemban, E. (2014, January 9\u201313). Reliable monitoring of oil and gas pipelines using wireless sensor network (WSN)\u2014REMONG. Proceedings of the 2014 9th International Conference on System of Systems Engineering (SOSE), Adelade, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSOSE.2014.6892493"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.12928\/telkomnika.v14i3.3464","article-title":"Scalable Nodes Deployment Algorithm for the Monitoring of Underwater Pipeline","volume":"14","author":"Abbas","year":"2016","journal-title":"TELKOMNIKA (Telecommun. Comput. Electron. Control)"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2011.05.006","article-title":"Linear wireless sensor networks: Classification and applications","volume":"34","author":"Jawhar","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"118","article-title":"Remote Wireless Automation and Monitoring of Large Farm using wireless sensors networks and Internet","volume":"6","author":"Ali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"1","article-title":"Experimental evaluation of effect of turbidity on the performance of visible light communication in an underwater environment","volume":"17","author":"Taniguchi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Simul. Syst. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ishida, K., Taniguchi, Y., and Iguchi, N. (2016, January 28\u201330). A data gathering method considering volume of transmission range for fish farm monitoring. Proceedings of the European Modelling Symposium (EMS), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMS.2016.039"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Antonelli, G., Caffaz, A., Casalino, G., Volpi, N.C., De Jong, I.B., De Palma, D., Duarte, H., Grimsdale, J., Indiveri, G., and Jesus, S. (2016, January 10\u201313). The Widely scalable Mobile Underwater Sonar Technology (WiMUST) H2020 project: First year status. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2016-Shanghai, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSAP.2016.7485587"},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Kumar, S., Perry, A., Moeller, C., Skvoretz, D., Ebbert, M., Ostrom, R., Bennett, S., and Czipott, P. (2004, January 9\u201312). Real-time tracking magnetic gradiometer for underwater mine detection. Proceedings of the Oceans\u201904 MTS\/IEEE Techno-Ocean\u201904, Kobe, Japan."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s11370-011-0097-4","article-title":"Adaptive autonomous underwater vehicles for littoral surveillance","volume":"4","author":"Kemna","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intell. Serv. Robot."},{"key":"ref_115","unstructured":"Jain, N., and Virmani, D. (2017, January 15\u201317). Feature Classification for Underwater Seismic Prediction Using Wireless Sensor Nodes. Proceedings of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists, Hong Kong, China."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santana Sosa, G., Santana Abril, J., Sosa, J., Montiel-Nelson, J.A., and Bautista, T. (2020). Design of a Practical Underwater Sensor Network for Offshore Fish Farm Cages. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164459"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1504\/IJRAM.2014.062794","article-title":"Mobile UW-ASN framework with RSSI-based protocol for shallow river monitoring","volume":"17","author":"Oh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Risk Assess. Manag."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2016.2639111","article-title":"Floating monopole antenna on a tethered subsurface sensor at 433 MHz for ocean monitoring applications","volume":"42","author":"Loni","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morozs, N., Mitchell, P.D., Zakharov, Y., Mourya, R., Petillot, Y.R., Gibney, T., Dragone, M., Sherlock, B., Neasham, J.A., and Tsimenidis, C.C. (2018, January 3\u20135). Robust TDA-MAC for practical underwater sensor network deployment: Lessons from USMART sea trials. Proceedings of the Thirteenth ACM International Conference on Underwater Networks & Systems, Shenzhen, China.","DOI":"10.1145\/3291940.3291970"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cario, G., Casavola, A., Gjanci, P., Lupia, M., Petrioli, C., and Spaccini, D. (2017, January 19\u201322). Long lasting underwater wireless sensors network for water quality monitoring in fish farms. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2017-Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSE.2017.8084777"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munaf\u00f3, A., Ferri, G., LePage, K., and Goldhahn, R. (2017, January 19\u201322). AUV active perception: Exploiting the water column. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2017-Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSE.2017.8084874"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2018.2817268","article-title":"At-sea evaluation of an underwater vehicle behavior for passive target tracking","volume":"44","author":"Wolek","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21827","article-title":"Online motion planning for unexplored underwater environments using autonomous underwater vehicles","volume":"36","author":"Vidal","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denniston, C., Krogstad, T.R., Kemna, S., and Sukhatme, G.S. (2018, January 6\u20139). On-line AUV Survey Planning for Finding Safe Vessel Paths through Hazardous Environments. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/OES Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Workshop (AUV), Porto, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/AUV.2018.8729818"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, X., and Guo, L. (2019). A leader\u2013follower formation control approach for target hunting by multiple autonomous underwater vehicle in three-dimensional underwater environments. Int. J. Adv. Robot. Syst., 16.","DOI":"10.1177\/1729881419870664"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossain, M.F., Wali, M.B., Munasinghe, K.S., and Jamalipour, A. (2016, January 3\u20136). Three dimensional (3D) underwater sensor network architectures for intruder localization using EM wave. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference, Doha, Qatar.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2016.7565022"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.21447","article-title":"Mobile underwater sensor networks for protection and security: Field experience at the UAN11 experiment","volume":"30","author":"Caiti","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Field Robot."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcontrol.2015.09.010","article-title":"Typhoon at CommsNet13: Experimental experience on AUV navigation and localization","volume":"40","author":"Allotta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Control"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2017.2684423","article-title":"Coordinated navigation of surface and underwater marine robotic vehicles for ocean sampling and environmental monitoring","volume":"22","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1145\/1121776.1121779","article-title":"Challenges for efficient communication in underwater acoustic sensor networks","volume":"1","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2004","journal-title":"ACM Sigbed Rev."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2017.08.022","article-title":"Adaptive RTO for handshaking-based MAC protocols in underwater acoustic networks","volume":"86","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/18\/5393\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:11:56Z","timestamp":1760177516000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/18\/5393"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s20185393"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20185393","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,21]]}}}