{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T01:44:22Z","timestamp":1768441462478,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]],"date-time":"2020-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601164800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The modern-day vehicle is evolved in a cyber-physical system with internal networks (controller area network (CAN), Ethernet, etc.) connecting hundreds of micro-controllers. From the traditional core vehicle functions, such as vehicle controls, infotainment, and power-train management, to the latest developments, such as advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving features, each one of them uses CAN as their communication network backbone. Automated driving and ADAS features rely on data transferred over the CAN network from multiple sensors mounted on the vehicle. Verifying the integrity of the sensor data is essential for the safety and security of occupants and the proper functionality of these applications. Though the CAN interface ensures reliable data transfer, it lacks basic security features, including message authentication, which makes it vulnerable to a wide array of attacks, including spoofing, replay, DoS, etc. Using traditional cryptography-based methods to verify the integrity of data transmitted over CAN interfaces is expected to increase the computational complexity, latency, and overall cost of the system. In this paper, we propose a light-weight alternative to verify the sensor data\u2019s integrity for vehicle applications that use CAN networks for data transfers. To this end, a framework for 2-dimensional quantization index modulation (2D QIM)-based data hiding is proposed to achieve this goal. Using a typical radar sensor data transmission scenario in an autonomous vehicle application, we analyzed the performance of the proposed framework regarding detecting and localizing the sensor data tampering. The effects of embedding-induced distortion on the applications using the radar data were studied through a sensor fusion algorithm. It was observed that the proposed framework offers the much-needed data integrity verification without compromising on the quality of sensor fusion data and is implemented with low overall design complexity. This proposed framework can also be used on any physical network interface other than CAN, and it offers traceability to in-vehicle data beyond the scope of the in-vehicle applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20195530","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]],"date-time":"2020-09-28T08:02:58Z","timestamp":1601280178000},"page":"5530","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Radar Data Integrity Verification Using 2D QIM-Based Data Hiding"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5665-2401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raghu","family":"Changalvala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8076-4091","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brandon","family":"Fedoruk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6006-3888","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hafiz","family":"Malik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48128, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarmento, A., Garcia, B., Coriteac, L., and Navarenho, L. (2018). The Challenges of the Autonomous Vehicle for Emergent Markets, SAE International. SAE Technical Paper 2017-36-0436.","DOI":"10.4271\/2017-36-0436"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2018). Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. Ground Vehicle Standard, SAE International."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baxter, J.A., Merced, D.A., Costinett, D.J., Tolbert, L.M., and Ozpineci, B. (2018, January 13\u201315). Review of Electrical Architectures and Power Requirements for Automated Vehicles. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Long Beach, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITEC.2018.8449961"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, J., Liew, L., Sabaliauskaite, G., and Zhou, F. (2018). A Review on Safety Failures, Security Attacks, and Available Countermeasures for Autonomous Vehicles. Ad Hoc Netw., 90.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2018.12.006"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Chen, J., Nguyen, T., and Tomizuka, M. (2017). The Robustly-Safe Automated Driving System for Enhanced Active Safety1, SAE International. SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-1406.","DOI":"10.4271\/2017-01-1406"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, L.X., Manglani, S., Li, X.H., and Jia, Y.Y. (2017). Teaching Autonomous Vehicles How to Drive under Sensing Exceptions by Human Driving Demonstrations, SAE International. SAE Technical Paper 2017-01-0070.","DOI":"10.4271\/2017-01-0070"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5119","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2015.2410258","article-title":"Development of Autonomous Car\u2014Part II: A Case Study on the Implementation of an Autonomous Driving System Based on Distributed Architecture","volume":"62","author":"Jo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, C., and Sangiovanni-Vincentelli, A. (2012, January 14\u201316). Cyber-Security for the Controller Area Network (CAN) Communication Protocol. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Cyber Security, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CyberSecurity.2012.7"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"91","article-title":"Remote Exploitation of an Unaltered Passenger Vehicle","volume":"2015","author":"Miller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Black Hat USA"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"993","article-title":"A Practical Wireless Attack on the Connected Car and Security Protocol for In-Vehicle CAN","volume":"16","author":"Woo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2020, June 10). Specification of Secure Onboard Communication. Available online: https:\/\/www.autosar.org\/fileadmin\/user_upload standards\/classic\/4-3\/AUTOSAR_SWS_SecureOnboardCommunication.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2519464","article-title":"A Practical Security Architecture for In-Vehicle CAN-FD","volume":"17","author":"Woo","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138018","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2943207","article-title":"LiDAR Data Integrity Verification for Autonomous Vehicle","volume":"7","author":"Changalvala","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7131","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2014.2321342","article-title":"Development of Autonomous Car\u2014Part I: Distributed System Architecture and Development Process","volume":"61","author":"Jo","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Z.M., and Guo, S.Z. (2017). Chapter 1\u2014Introduction. Lossless Information Hiding in Images, Syngress.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-812006-4.00001-2"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, Q., Chan, W.K., Gui, K.C., Chen, Q., Scheibert, K., Heidt, L., and Seow, E. (2017, January 4\u20136). The Study of Secure CAN Communication for Automotive Applications. Proceedings of the WCX\u2122 17: SAE World Congress Experience, Detroit, MI, USA.","DOI":"10.4271\/2017-01-1658"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, J., and Potkonjak, M. (2003). Real-Time Watermarking Techniques for Sensor Networks, SPIE-The International Society for Optical Engineering.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.479736"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4118","DOI":"10.3390\/s110404118","article-title":"A lightweight data integrity scheme for sensor networks","volume":"11","author":"Kamel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Ibaida, A., Khalil, I., and van Schyndel, R. (2011, January 18\u201321). A low complexity high capacity ECG signal watermark for wearable sensor-net health monitoring system. Proceedings of the 2011 Computing in Cardiology, Hangzhou, China."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiwari, A., Chakraborty, S., and Mishra, M. (2013, January 26\u201327). Secure Data Aggregation Using Irreversible Watermarking in WSNs. Proceedings of the Confluence 2013: The Next Generation Information Technology Summit (4th International Conference), Noida, India.","DOI":"10.1049\/cp.2013.2337"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"407","article-title":"Digital watermarking method for data integrity protection in wireless sensor networks","volume":"7","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Secur. Its Appl."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lalem, F. (2016, January 16\u201318). Data Authenticity and Integrity in Wireless Sensor Networks Based on a Watermarking Approach. Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth International Flairs Conference, Key Largo, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3010089.3010114"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7536381","article-title":"A New Digital Watermarking Method for Data Integrity Protection in the Perception Layer of IoT","volume":"2017","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Secur. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alromih, A., Al-Rodhaan, M., and Tian, Y. (2018). A Randomized Watermarking Technique for Detecting Malicious Data Injection Attacks in Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks for Internet of Things Applications. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201811.0316.v1"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahirat, K., and Prabhakaran, B. (2017, January 10\u201314). A Study On Lidar Data Forensics. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Multimedia and Expo, Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICME.2017.8019395"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Technologies, M. (2020, July 24). CarND-Mercedes-SF-Utilities. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/udacity\/CarND-Mercedes-SF-Utilities\/projects."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cox, I., Miller, M., Bloom, J., Fridrich, J., and Kalker, T. (2008). Digital Watermarking and Steganography, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers Inc.. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012372585-1.50015-2"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008107127819","article-title":"Quantization index modulation methods for digital watermarking and information embedding of multimedia","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Vlsi Signal Process. Syst. Signal Image Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Joachim, E., and Bernd, G. (2002). Informed Watermarking, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Chapter 2."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Chen, B., and Wornell, G.W. (1998, January 7\u20139). Digital watermarking and information embedding using dither modulation. Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE 2nd Workshop on Multimedia Signal Processing, Redondo Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2020, July 24). Specification of Time Synchronization over CAN. Available online: https:\/\/www.autosar.org\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/standards\/classic\/4-3\/AUTOSAR_SWS_TimeSyncOverCAN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1109\/70.760343","article-title":"Development and experimental validation of an adaptive extended Kalman filter for the localization of mobile robots","volume":"15","author":"Jetto","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matcom.2010.05.003","article-title":"Extended Kalman and Particle Filtering for sensor fusion in motion control of mobile robots","volume":"81","author":"Rigatos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Math. Comput. Simul."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madhavan, R., and Schlenoff, C. (2003, January 30). Moving Object Prediction for Off-road Autonomous Navigation. Proceedings of the Volume 5083, Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology V, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.485771"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, S., Gil, M.S., Im, H., and Moon, Y.S. (2019). Measurement Noise Recommendation for Efficient Kalman Filtering over a Large Amount of Sensor Data. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051168"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5530\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:14:10Z","timestamp":1760177650000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5530"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s20195530"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20195530","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]]}}}