{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T08:25:17Z","timestamp":1765268717149,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]],"date-time":"2020-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601164800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005632","name":"Narodowe Centrum Bada\u0144 i Rozwoju","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LIDER\/27\/0140\/L-10\/18\/NCBR\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LIDER\/27\/0140\/L-10\/18\/NCBR\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005632","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents the results of research on the airflow around a multirotor aircraft. The research consisted of the analysis of the velocity field using particle image velocimetry. Based on the tests carried out in a wind tunnel, the distribution of the velocity and its components in the vertical plane passing through the propeller axis were determined for several values of the angle of attack of the tested object for two values of airflow velocity inside the tunnel, i.e., vwt = 0 m\/s and vwt = 12.5 m\/s. Determining the velocity value as a function of the coordinates of the adopted reference system allowed for defining the range of impact of the horizontal propellers and the fuselage of the research object itself. The tests allowed for quantitative and qualitative analyses of the airflow through the horizontal rotor. Particular attention was paid to the impact of the airflow and the angle of attack on the obtained velocity field distributions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20195537","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]],"date-time":"2020-09-28T08:02:58Z","timestamp":1601280178000},"page":"5537","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Measurement of the Flow Field Generated by Multicopter Propellers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Zbigniew","family":"Czy\u017c","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aeronautics Faculty, Military University of Aviation, 08-521 D\u0119blin, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5786-1248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Karpi\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics and Aviation Propulsion Systems, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, 20-618 Lublin, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wit","family":"Stryczniewicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerodynamics Department, \u0141ukasiewicz Institute of Aviation, 02-256 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Numerical analysis of the horizontal stabilizer influence on the Gyroplane Aerodynamic characteristics","volume":"232","author":"Magryta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Bogda\u0144ski, K., Rodzewicz, M., and Rucha\u0142a, P. (2015, January 7\u201311). Characteristics of locked and free-wheeling ducted fan based on wind tunnel test and CFD analyses. Proceedings of the 5th CEAS Air & Space Conference, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Versteeg, K.K., and Malalasekera, W. (2007). An introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics, Person Education Limited."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Wilox, D.C. (2006). Turbulence Modeling for CFD, DCW Industries. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Czy\u017c, Z., and Siadkowska, K. (2020, January 22\u201324). Measurement of Air Flow Velocity around the Unmanned Rotorcraft. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace (MetroAeroSpace), Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAeroSpace48742.2020.9160062"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-014-1702-z","article-title":"Comparison of different tracers for PIV measurements in EHD airflow","volume":"55","author":"Hamdi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raffael, M., Willert, C.E., Scarano, F., Kaehler, C.J., Wereley, S.T., and Kompenhans, J. (2018). Physical and Technical Background. Particle Image Velocimetry, Springer. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-68852-7"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2514\/1.J055571","article-title":"Contributions of Particle Image Velocimetry to Helicopter Aerodynamics","volume":"55","author":"Raffel","year":"2017","journal-title":"AIAA J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.5604\/05096669.1130234","article-title":"PIV measurements of the vortex ring state of the main rotor of a helicopter","volume":"2","author":"Stryczniewicz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatfluidflow.2008.02.009","article-title":"Measurement of fin scale structure in turbulence by time-resolved dual-plane stereoscopic PIV","volume":"29","author":"Tanahashi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Surmacz, K., Rucha\u0142a, P., and Stryczniewicz, W. (2016). Wind tunnel tests of the development and demise of Vortex Ring State of the rotor. Advances in Mechanics: Theoretical, Computational and Interdisciplinary Issues, Proceedings of the 3rd Polish Congress of Mechanics, PCM and the 21st International Conference on Computer Methods in Mechanics, CMM, Gdansk, Poland, 8\u201311 September 2015, Taylor & Francis Ltd.","DOI":"10.1201\/b20057-118"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Nathan, N. (2010). The Rotor Wake in Ground Effect and its Investigation in a Wind Tunnel. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Glasgow]."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cja.2016.12.033","article-title":"Tracking characteristics of tracer particles for PIV measurements in supersonic flows","volume":"30","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. J. Aeronaut."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Scarano, F. (2007). Overview of PIV in supersonic flows. Particle Image Velocimetry, Springer."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.2514\/2.1787","article-title":"Particle image velocimetry in Mach 3.5 and 4.5 shock-tunnel flows","volume":"40","author":"Haertig","year":"2002","journal-title":"AIAA J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.5604\/05096669.1205252","article-title":"Application of an inverse method for improvement of the measurement capability of the particle image velocimetry method","volume":"2","author":"Stryczniewicz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Pust, O. (2000, January 10\u201313). PIV: Direct cross-correlation compared with FFT-based cross-correlation. Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"41","article-title":"Development of Particle Imagine Velocimetry Algorithm","volume":"3","author":"Stryczniewicz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Probl. Mechatroniki"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"2988","article-title":"Helicopter downwash\/frigate airwake interaction flowfield PIV surveys in a low speed wind tunnel","volume":"Volume 4","author":"Nacakli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annual Forum Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-016-2277-7","article-title":"HFSB-seeding for large-scale tomographic PIV in wind tunnels","volume":"57","author":"Caridi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-015-1909-7","article-title":"On the use of helium-filled soap bubbles for large-scale tomographic PIV in wind tunnel experiments","volume":"56","author":"Scarano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095305","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/26\/9\/095305","article-title":"Pulse-burst PIV in a high-speed wind tunnel","volume":"26","author":"Beresh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2011.05.081","article-title":"CFD and PIV investigation of unsteady flow through Savonius wind turbine","volume":"6","author":"Dobrev","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Procedia"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jweia.2012.02.005","article-title":"CFD simulation of cross-ventilation flow for different isolated building configurations: Validation with wind tunnel measurements and analysis of physical and numerical diffusion effects","volume":"104","author":"Ramponi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerod."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/17\/7\/003","article-title":"Micro-PIV and ELDV wind tunnel investigations of the laminar separation bubble above a helicopter blade tip","volume":"17","author":"Raffel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1115\/1.2103092","article-title":"Investigation of vortex shedding and wake-wake interaction in a transonic turbine stage using laser-doppler-velocimetry and particle-image-velocimetry","volume":"128","author":"Pieringer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Turbomach."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Ragni, D. (2012). PIV-Based Load Determination in Aircraft Propellers. [Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ragni, D., van Oudheusden, B.W., and Scarano, F. (2012, January 9\u201312). PIV-load determination in aircraft propellers. Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics, Lisbon, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Raffel, M., Merz, C., Bauknecht, A., and Schwermer, T. (2013, January 16\u201317). High-speed PIV, deformation and BOS measurements for rotor aerodynamics. Proceedings of the AFDAR Workshop on Application of Advanced Flow Diagnostics to Aeronautics, Brunswick, Germany."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bridges, J., Wernet, M., and Frate, F. (2011, January 4\u20137). PIV measurements of chevrons on F400-series tactical aircraft nozzle model. Proceedings of the 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2011-1157"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.buildenv.2014.07.027","article-title":"2D-PIV measurement of aircraft cabin air distribution with a high spatial resolution","volume":"82","author":"Cao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Build. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-011-1185-0","article-title":"A comprehensive PIV measurement campaign on a fully equipped helicopter model","volume":"53","author":"Pengel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2011.11.002","article-title":"Flow field characterization and interactional aerodynamics analysis of a complete helicopter","volume":"19","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wadcock, A., Yamauchi, G., Solis, E., and Pete, A. (2011, January 27\u201330). PIV measurements in the wake of a full-scale rotor in forward flight. Proceedings of the 29th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2011-3370"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2016.11.001","article-title":"On the modelling of gyroplane flight dynamics","volume":"88","author":"Houston","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"65","article-title":"The measurement & control system in the T-1wind tunnel","volume":"5","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Rucha\u0142a, P., Bogda\u0144ski, K., and Stryczniewicz, W. (2016, January 25\u201330). Analyses of airflow around ducted fan propulsion system in pusher configuration using PIV method. Proceedings of the 30th Congress of International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences, Daejeon, Korea."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"106","article-title":"Investigation of aerodynamic interference in a multirotor by PIV method","volume":"12","author":"Stryczniewicz","year":"2018","journal-title":"ASTRJ"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2006.02.043","article-title":"Gas-phase particle image velocimetry (PIV) for application to the design of fuel cell reactant flow channels","volume":"160","author":"Yoon","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Power Source"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Hosokawa, M., Kiyoshi, N., Naito, M., and Yokoyama, T. (2007). Nanoparticle Technology Handbook, Elsevier. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3668","DOI":"10.1109\/TPS.2015.2461016","article-title":"Investigation of a Micro Dielectric Barrier Discharge Plasma Actuator for Regional Aircraft Active Flow Control","volume":"43","author":"Pescini","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1007\/s00348-005-0016-6","article-title":"Universal outlier detection for PIV data","volume":"39","author":"Westerweel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2016.05.016","article-title":"Active flow control over a backward-facing step using plasma actuation","volume":"126","author":"Ruisi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ast.2018.01.019","article-title":"Separation control by a microfabricated SDBD plasma actuator for small engine turbine applications: Influence of the excitation waveform","volume":"76","author":"Pescini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aerosp. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065301","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/6\/065301","article-title":"Estimation of uncertainty bounds for individual particle image velocimetry measurements from cross-correlation peak ratio","volume":"24","author":"Charonko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084006","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/27\/8\/084006","article-title":"PIV uncertainty propagation","volume":"27","author":"Sciacchitano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5537\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:14:13Z","timestamp":1760177653000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5537"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s20195537"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20195537","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,27]]}}}