{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T16:18:32Z","timestamp":1778948312249,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Special Zones for National Defense Science and Technology Innovation","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61673208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61673208"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61533008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61533008"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61533009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61533009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61703208"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61703208"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BK20181291"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20181291"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BK20170815"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20170815"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BK20170767"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20170767"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NP2018108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NP2018108"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NZ2019007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NZ2019007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The combination of biomechanics and inertial pedestrian navigation research provides a very promising approach for pedestrian positioning in environments where Global Positioning System (GPS) signal is unavailable. However, in practical applications such as fire rescue and indoor security, the inertial sensor-based pedestrian navigation system is facing various challenges, especially the step length estimation errors and heading drift in running and sprint. In this paper, a trinal-node, including two thigh-worn inertial measurement units (IMU) and one waist-worn IMU, based simultaneous localization and occupation grid mapping method is proposed. Specifically, the gait detection and segmentation are realized by the zero-crossing detection of the difference of thighs pitch angle. A piecewise function between the step length and the probability distribution of waist horizontal acceleration is established to achieve accurate step length estimation both in regular walking and drastic motions. In addition, the simultaneous localization and mapping method based on occupancy grids, which involves the historic trajectory to improve the pedestrian\u2019s pose estimation is introduced. The experiments show that the proposed trinal-node pedestrian inertial odometer can identify and segment each gait cycle in the walking, running, and sprint. The average step length estimation error is no more than 3.58% of the total travel distance in the motion speed from 1.23 m\/s to 3.92 m\/s. In combination with the proposed simultaneous localization and mapping method based on the occupancy grid, the localization error is less than 5 m in a single-story building of 2643.2 m2.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20195570","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T08:43:27Z","timestamp":1601369007000},"page":"5570","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Pedestrian Navigation System with Trinal-IMUs for Drastic Motions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7027-7633","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiming","family":"Ding","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhi","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wanling","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhiguo","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhengchun","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MCG.2005.140","article-title":"Pedestrian tracking with shoe-mounted inertial sensors","volume":"25","author":"Foxlin","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girisha, R., Prateek, G.V., Hari, K., and Handel, P. (2014, January 22\u201325). Fusing the navigation information of dual foot-mounted zero-velocity-update-aided inertial navigation systems. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Signal Processing and Communications (SPCOM), Bangalore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/SPCOM.2014.6984001"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, W., Wang, Y., and Wu, Y. (2017). Dual MIMU Pedestrian Navigation by Inequality Constraint Kalman Filtering. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020427"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bousdar Ahmed, D., and Munoz Diaz, E. (2017). Loose Coupling of Wearable-Based INSs with Automatic Heading Evaluation. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112534"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, W., Chen, R., Chen, Y., Kuusniemi, H., and Wang, J. (2010, January 4\u20136). An effective Pedestrian Dead Reckoning algorithm using a unified heading error model. Proceedings of the PLANS 2010: IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium, Indian Wells, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2010.5507300"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2342","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2005.858557","article-title":"Design of a Wireless Assisted Pedestrian Dead Reckoning System\u2014The NavMote Experience","volume":"54","author":"Fang","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bao, S.D., Meng, X.L., Xiao, W., and Zhang, Z.Q. (2017). Fusion of Inertial\/Magnetic Sensor Measurements and Map Information for Pedestrian Tracking. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020340"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inffus.2017.04.006","article-title":"Inertial\/magnetic sensors based pedestrian dead reckoning by means of multi-sensor fusion","volume":"39","author":"Qiu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.11.052","article-title":"Research on the improved method for dual foot-mounted Inertial\/Magnetometer pedestrian positioning based on adaptive inequality constraints Kalman Filter algorithm","volume":"135","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zizzo, G., and Ren, L. (2017). Position Tracking During Human Walking Using an Integrated Wearable Sensing System. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122866"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Park, J., Kim, Y., and Lee, J. (2012, January 26\u201328). Waist mounted Pedestrian Dead-Reckoning system. Proceedings of the 2012 9th International Conference on Ubiquitous Robots and Ambient Intelligence (URAI), Daejeon, Korea."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, H.Y., Hsieh, C.Y., Liu, K.C., Cheng, H.C., Hsu, S.J., and Chan, C.T. (2019). Multi-Sensor Fusion Approach for Improving Map-Based Indoor Pedestrian Localization. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173786"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2682","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2014.2313951","article-title":"Distributed Indoor Positioning System With Inertial Measurements and Map Matching","volume":"63","author":"Perttula","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ascher, C., Kessler, C., Weis, R., and Trommer, G. (2012, January 13\u201315). Multi-floor map matching in indoor environments for mobile platforms. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2012.6418928"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2012.2189785","article-title":"FootSLAM: Pedestrian Simultaneous Localization and Mapping Without Exteroceptive Sensors-Hitchhiking on Human Perception and Cognition","volume":"100","author":"Angermann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruno, L., and Robertson, P. (2011, January 21\u201323). WiSLAM: Improving FootSLAM with WiFi. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Guimar\u00e3es, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2011.6071916"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson, P., Angermann, M., and Khider, M. (2010, January 4\u20136). Improving Simultaneous Localization and Mapping for Pedestrian Navigation and Automatic Mapping of Buildings by Using Online Human-Based Feature Labeling. Proceedings of the PLANS 2010: IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium, Indian Wells, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2010.5507304"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frassl, M., Angermann, M., Lichtenstern, M., Robertson, P., Julian, B.J., and Doniec, M. (2013, January 3\u20137). Magnetic maps of indoor environments for precise localization of legged and non-legged locomotion. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Tokyo, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2013.6696459"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirowski, P., Ho, T.K., Saehoon, Y., and MacDonald, M. (2013, January 28\u201331). SignalSLAM: Simultaneous localization and mapping with mixed WiFi, Bluetooth, LTE and magnetic signals. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Montbeliard, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2013.6817853"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hardegger, M., Roggen, D., Mazilu, S., and Troster, G. (2012, January 13\u201315). ActionSLAM: Using location-related actions as landmarks in pedestrian SLAM. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2012.6418932"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-014-0815-y","article-title":"3D ActionSLAM: Wearable person tracking in multi-floor environments","volume":"19","author":"Hardegger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pers. Ubiquitous Comput."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2824286","article-title":"S-SMART: A Unified Bayesian Framework for Simultaneous Semantic Mapping, Activity Recognition, and Tracking","volume":"7","author":"Hardegger","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Intell. Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Moravec, H., and Elfes, A. (1985, January 25\u201328). High resolution maps from wide angle sonar. Proceedings of the 1985 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, St. Louis, MO, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5570\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:14:39Z","timestamp":1760177679000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5570"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s20195570"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20195570","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]}}}