{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]],"date-time":"2025-11-06T16:05:09Z","timestamp":1762445109000,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Merging is one of the most critical scenarios that can be found in road transport. In this maneuver, the driver is subjected to a high mental load due to the large amount of information he handles, while making decisions becomes a crucial issue for their safety and those in adjacent vehicles. In previous works, it was studied how the merging maneuver affected the cognitive load required for driving by means of an eye tracking system, justifying the proposal of a driver assistance system for the merging maneuver on highways. This paper presents a merging assistance system based on communications between vehicles, which allows vehicles to share internal variables of position and speed and is implemented on a mobile device located inside the vehicle. The system algorithm decides where and when the vehicle can start the merging maneuver in safe conditions and provides the appropriate information to the driver. Parameters and driving simulator tests are used for the interface definition to develop the less intrusive and demanding one. Afterward, the system prototype was installed in a real passenger car and tests in real scenarios were conducted with several drivers to assess usability and mental load. Comparisons among alternative solutions are shown and effectiveness is assessed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20195582","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T08:43:27Z","timestamp":1601369007000},"page":"5582","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Driver Monitoring for a Driver-Centered Design and Assessment of a Merging Assistance System Based on V2V Communications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6216-732X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofia","family":"S\u00e1nchez\u2013Mateo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute for Automobile Research (INSIA), Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid (UPM), 28031 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"P\u00e9rez\u2013Moreno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Faculty, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Campus de Somosaguas, Pozuelo de Alarc\u00f3n, 28223 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9532-3835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felipe","family":"Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Institute for Automobile Research (INSIA), Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid (UPM), 28031 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and U.S. Department of Transportation (2018). Critical Reasons for Crashes Investigated in the National Motor Vehicle Crash Causation Survey, No. March."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1365\/s40112-016-1164-1","article-title":"A Roadmap to Safer Driving Through Advanced Driver Assistance Systems","volume":"5","author":"Mosquet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Auto Tech Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-its:20060081","article-title":"Intelligent transport systems and effects on road traffic accidents: State of the art","volume":"2","author":"Vaa","year":"2007","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Godfrey, M.B. (1968). Merging in Automated Transportation System. [Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Brown, S. (1974). Adaptive Merging under Car-Follower Control, Johns Hopkins University. Tech. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.3141\/1635-04","article-title":"Prediction Models for Truck Accidents at Freeway Ramps in Washington State Using Regression and Artificial Intelligence Techniques","volume":"1635","author":"Awad","year":"1998","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2009.02.011","article-title":"Merging into heavy motorway traffic by young and elderly drivers","volume":"41","author":"Dijksterhuis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.1109\/25.901899","article-title":"Collision avoidance analysis for lane changing and merging","volume":"49","author":"Jula","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2587582","article-title":"Automated and Cooperative Vehicle Merging at Highway On-Ramps","volume":"18","author":"Malikopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2010.2096812","article-title":"Automated On-Ramp Merging System for Congested Traffic Situations","volume":"12","author":"Milanes","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2004.12.003","article-title":"Modelling vehicle interactions in microscopic simulation of merging and weaving","volume":"13","author":"Hidas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2009.01.002","article-title":"Do microscopic merging models reproduce the observed priority sharing ratio in congestion?","volume":"17","author":"Chevallier","year":"2009","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2008.2006812","article-title":"Using ITS to Improve the Capacity of Freeway Merging Sections by Transferring Freight Vehicles","volume":"9","author":"Sarvi","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2006.874706","article-title":"Detection and Classification of Highway Lanes Using Vehicle Motion Trajectories","volume":"7","author":"Melo","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1109\/MITS.2012.2203231","article-title":"Studying Effects of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) on Individual and Group Level Using Multi-Driver Simulation","volume":"4","author":"Maag","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Transp. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Muehlbacher, D., Rittger, L., Maag, C., and Ag, A.O. (2014, January 4\u20135). Real vs Simulated Surrounding Traffic\u2014Does It Matter?. Proceedings of the Driving Simulation Conference, Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, Y., Gao, L., Zhao, Y., and Du, F. (2016). Drivers\u2019 Visual Characteristics when Merging onto or Exiting an Urban Expressway. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162298"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ahmed, S., Hoque, M.A., Rios-Torres, J., and Khattak, A. (2018). A Cooperative Freeway Merge Assistance System using Connected Vehicles. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.09.048","article-title":"What does the driver look at? The influence of intersection characteristics on attention allocation and driving behavior","volume":"45","author":"Werneke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.16910\/jemr.7.4.3","article-title":"Discriminating Cognitive Processes with Eye Movements in a Decision-Making Driving Task","volume":"7","author":"Lemonnier","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Eye Mov. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, F., Naranjo, J.E., S\u00e1nchez, S., Serradilla, F., Perez, E., Naranjo, J.E., and Ruiz, T. (2018). Communications and Driver Monitoring Aids for Fostering SAE Level-4 Road Vehicles Automation. Electronics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics7100228"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Sanchez-Mateo, S., Clavijo, M., D\u00edaz-\u00c1lvarez, A., and Jim\u00e9nez, F. (2018, January 18\u201321). Interface Design for an Assistance System Focused on High Attentional Load Situations. Proceedings of the 25th ITS World Congress, Copenhagen, Denmark."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez Mateo, S., Perez-Moreno, E., Jimenez, F., Hern\u00e1ndez Naranjo, J.E., Perez Flores, C.G., and Teruel Anto\u00f1azas, J. (2018, January 12\u201314). Study of a Driver Assistance Interface for Merging Situations on Highways. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Vehicular Electronics and Safety ICVES, Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICVES.2018.8519495"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Casti\u00f1eira, R., Gil, M., Naranjo, J.E., Jimenez, F., Premebida, C., Serra, P., Vadejo, A., Nashashibi, F., Abualhoul, M.Y., and Asvadi, A. (2018, January 16\u201319). AUTOCITS\u2014Regulation study for interoperability in the adoption of autonomous driving in European urban nodes. Proceedings of the European Transportation Research Arena, Viena, Austria."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Nikolaou, S., and Gragapoulos, I. (2017, January 27\u201329). IoT\u2014Based interaction of automated vehicles with Vulnerable Road Users in controlled environments. Proceedings of the 8th International Congress on Transportation Research\u2014ICTR 2017, Thessaloniki, Greece."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sakr, A.H., Bansal, G., Vladimerou, V., Kusano, K., and Johnson, M. (2017, January 16\u201319). V2V and onboard sensor fusion for road geometry estimation. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 20th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Yokohama, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2017.8317876"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1066","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2016.2600504","article-title":"A Survey on the Coordination of Connected and Automated Vehicles at Intersections and Merging at Highway On-Ramps","volume":"18","author":"Malikopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barrachina, J., Sanguesa, J.A., Fogue, M., Garrido, P., Martinez, F.J., Cano, J.C., and Manzoni, P. (2013, January 13\u201315). V2X-d: A vehicular density estimation system that combines V2V and V2I communications. Proceedings of the 2013 IFIP Wireless Days, Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/WD.2013.6686518"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2014.05.008","article-title":"Using connected vehicle technology to improve the efficiency of intersections","volume":"46","author":"Guler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dang, R., Ding, J., Su, B., Yao, Q., Tian, Y., and Li, K. (2014, January 8\u201311). A lane change warning system based on V2V communication. Proceedings of the 17th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Qingdao, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2014.6957987"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2016.03.008","article-title":"Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication in a heterogeneous wireless network \u2013 Performance evaluation","volume":"68","author":"Dey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaviani, S., O\u2019Brien, M., Van Brummelen, J., Najjaran, H., and Michelson, D. (2016, January 15\u201318). INS\/GPS localization for reliable cooperative driving. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCECE.2016.7726750"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics3030521","article-title":"A Novel Geo-Broadcast Algorithm for V2V Communications over WSN","volume":"3","author":"Anaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2014.12.003","article-title":"Vehicle to Vehicle GeoNetworking using Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"27","author":"Anaya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1080\/15472450.2016.1247703","article-title":"Application of vehicle to another entity (V2X) communications for motorcycle crash avoidance","volume":"21","author":"Naranjo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Talavera, E., Anaya, J.J., G\u00f3mez, \u00d3., Jim\u00e9nez, F., and Naranjo, J.E. (2018). Performance Comparison of Geobroadcast Strategies for Winding Roads. Electronics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics7030032"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, F., Monz\u00f3n, S., and Naranjo, J.E. (2016). Definition of an Enhanced Map-Matching Algorithm for Urban Environments with Poor GNSS Signal Quality. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16020193"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2010.05.017","article-title":"Adapting ISA system warnings to enhance user acceptance","volume":"48","author":"Liang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1207\/STHF0203_1","article-title":"\u201cHow Long Does It Take to Stop?\u201d Methodological Analysis of Driver Perception-Brake Times","volume":"2","author":"Green","year":"2000","journal-title":"Transp. Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sens, M.J., Cheng, P.H., Wiechel, J.F., and Guenther, D.A. (1989). Perception\/Reaction Time Values for Accident Reconstruction, SAE International. SAE Paper no 890732; SAE Technical Papers.","DOI":"10.4271\/890732"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Burgett, A., Carter, A., and Preziotti, G. (2001). An Algorithm for Rear-End Collision Avoidance Warning Systems, SAE International. No. DOT HS 809220."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prestl, W., Sauer, T., Steinle, J., and Tschernoster, O. (2000). The BMW Active Cruise Control ACC, SAE International. SAE Technical Papers.","DOI":"10.4271\/2000-01-0344"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198118773569","article-title":"The Challenge of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems Assessment: A Scale for the Assessment of the Human\u2013Machine Interface of Advanced Driver Assistance Technology","volume":"Volume 2672","author":"Biondi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transportation Research Record"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Commission of the European Communities ESoP\u2014European Statement of Principles on Human-Machine Interface. Commission Recommendation of 26 May 2008 on Safe and Efficient In-Vehicle Information and Communication Systems: Update of the European Statement of Principles on Human-Machine Interface (2008\/653\/EC). Off. J. Eur. Union, Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=CELEX%3A32008H0653."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Burns, P.C., and Lansdown, T.C. (2001). E-Distraction: The Challenges for Safe and Usable Internet Services in Vehicles Benefits of In-Vehicle Internet (IVI), The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2011.555296","article-title":"In-Vehicle Information Systems to Meet the Needs of Drivers","volume":"27","author":"Harvey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jim\u00e9nez, F., Naranjo, J.E., Serradilla, F., Perez, E., Naranjo, J.E., Ruiz, T., Anaya, J.J., and Diaz, A. (2016). Intravehicular, Short- and Long-Range Communication Information Fusion for Providing Safe Speed Warnings. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010131"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"TobiiAB (2016). Tobi Pro Glasses 2 API Developer\u2019s Guide v.1.26.0, TobiiAB."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0968-090X(96)00025-3","article-title":"A simple procedure for the assessment of acceptance of advanced transport telematics","volume":"5","author":"Heino","year":"1997","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Brooke, J. (1996). SUS\u2014A Quick and Dirty Usability Scale. Usability Evaluation in Industry, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Zijlstra, F.R.H. (1993). Efficiency in Work Behaviour: A Design Approach for Modern Tools. [Ph.D. Thesis, TU Delft]. TU Delft Institutional Repository."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u00c1ngel Impulsive Driving: Definition and Measurement Using the I-Driving Scale (IDS)","volume":"18","author":"Perez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Span. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leigh, R.J., and Zee, D.S. (2015). The Neurology of Eye Movements, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780199969289.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9","article-title":"Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research","volume":"52","author":"Hart","year":"1988","journal-title":"Adv. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1007\/s10111-014-0276-0","article-title":"Evaluation of the driver\u2019s mental workload: A necessity in a perspective of in-vehicle system design for road safety improvement","volume":"16","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cogn. Technol. Work"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-0597.2004.00161.x","article-title":"Evaluation of Subjective Mental Workload: A Comparison of SWAT, NASA-TLX, and Workload Profile Methods","volume":"53","author":"Puente","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pereira, E., Costa, S., Costa, N., and Arezes, P. (2019). Weighing the Importance of Drivers\u2019 Workload Measurement Standardization, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-11051-2_13"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2018.04.004","article-title":"Dangerous intersections? A review of studies of fatigue and distraction in the automated vehicle","volume":"126","author":"Matthews","year":"2019","journal-title":"Accid. Anal. Prev."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.17531\/ein.2019.3.18","article-title":"Driver Reliability and Behavior Study Based on a Car Simulator Station Tests in ACC System Scenarios","volume":"21","author":"Papis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eksploat. Niezawodn."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1080\/17457300.2014.945463","article-title":"Willingness to use mobile application for smartphone for improving road safety","volume":"23","author":"Cardamone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Inj. Control Saf. Promot."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5582\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:14:48Z","timestamp":1760177688000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/19\/5582"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s20195582"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20195582","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]}}}