{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,14]],"date-time":"2026-01-14T23:25:27Z","timestamp":1768433127418,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,15]],"date-time":"2020-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1602720000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003627","name":"Rural Development Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PJ01494403"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PJ01494403"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003627","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2020R1C1C1004195"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2020R1C1C1004195"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, a portable and large-area blackbody system was developed following a series of processes including design, computational analysis, fabrication, and experimental analysis and evaluation. The blackbody system was designed to be lightweight (5 kg), and its temperature could exceed the ambient temperature by up to 15 \u00b0C under operation. A carbon-fiber-based heat source was used to achieve a uniform temperature distribution. A heat shield fabricated from an insulation material was embedded at the opposite side of the heating element to minimize heat loss. A prototype of the blackbody system was fabricated based on the design and transient coupled electro-thermal simulation results. The operation performance of this system, such as the thermal response, signal transfer function, and noise equivalent temperature difference, was evaluated by employing an infrared imaging system. In addition, emissivity was measured during operation. The results of this study show that the developed portable and large-area blackbody system can be expected to serve as a reliable reference source for the calibration of aerial infrared images for the application of aerial infrared techniques to remote sensing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20205836","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,15]],"date-time":"2020-10-15T09:02:03Z","timestamp":1602752523000},"page":"5836","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Design, Fabrication, and Performance Evaluation of Portable and Large-Area Blackbody System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Ji Yong","family":"Bae","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Scientific Instrumentation and Management, Korea Basic Science Institute, 169-148 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34133, Korea"}]},{"given":"Won","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rural Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"},{"name":"Global Smart Farm Convergence Major, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8758-8107","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suk-Ju","family":"Hong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7719-9343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sangyeon","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"}]},{"given":"Eungchan","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Smart Farm Convergence Major, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"},{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"}]},{"given":"Chang-Hyup","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Smart Farm Convergence Major, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"},{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"}]},{"given":"Yun-hyeok","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ISAE-Supa\u00e9ro, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, 10 avenue Edouard Belin, 31055 Toulouse, France"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0854-9693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hwan","family":"Hur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Scientific Instrumentation and Management, Korea Basic Science Institute, 169-148 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34133, Korea"}]},{"given":"Kye-Sung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Scientific Instrumentation and Management, Korea Basic Science Institute, 169-148 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34133, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6067-2066","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ki Soo","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Scientific Instrumentation and Management, Korea Basic Science Institute, 169-148 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34133, Korea"}]},{"given":"Geon-Hee","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Scientific Instrumentation and Management, Korea Basic Science Institute, 169-148 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34133, Korea"}]},{"given":"Ghiseok","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Smart Farm Convergence Major, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"},{"name":"Department of Biosystems Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"},{"name":"Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 08826, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-012-9274-5","article-title":"The application of small unmanned aerial systems for precision agriculture: A review","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40327-015-0029-z","article-title":"Visual monitoring of civil infrastructure systems via camera-equipped Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): A review of related works","volume":"4","author":"Ham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vis. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12518-013-0120-x","article-title":"UAV for 3D mapping applications: A review","volume":"6","author":"Nex","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"37","article-title":"Development of pattern recognition algorithm for automatic bird detection from unmanned aerial vehicle imagery","volume":"65","author":"Pearlstine","year":"2005","journal-title":"Surv. Land Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, S.-J., Han, Y., Kim, S.-Y., Lee, A.-Y., and Kim, G. (2019). Application of Deep-Learning Methods to Bird Detection Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Imagery. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19071651"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2012.08.005","article-title":"Usefulness of thermography for plant water stress detection in citrus and persimmon trees","volume":"168","author":"Ballester","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11387","DOI":"10.3390\/s150511387","article-title":"Determining the leaf emissivity of three crops by infrared thermometry","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2017.07.026","article-title":"Recent advances in crop water stress detection","volume":"141","author":"Ihuoma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s42853-019-00020-2","article-title":"Phenotypic Analysis of Fruit Crops Water Stress Using Infrared Thermal Imaging","volume":"44","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2010457","article-title":"Thermal and narrowband multispectral remote sensing for vegetation monitoring from an unmanned aerial vehicle","volume":"47","author":"Berni","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-013-9334-5","article-title":"Mapping crop water stress index in a \u2018Pinot-noir\u2019 vineyard: Comparing ground measurements with thermal remote sensing imagery from an unmanned aerial vehicle","volume":"15","author":"Bellvert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-011-0263-x","article-title":"Measurement techniques and application of electrical properties for nondestructive quality evaluation of foods\u2013A review","volume":"48","author":"Jha","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2013.12.015","article-title":"Application of infrared lock-in thermography for the quantitative evaluation of bruises on pears","volume":"63","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.17660\/ActaHortic.2003.604.50","article-title":"The use of thermography for presowing evaluation of seed germination capacity","volume":"604","author":"Baranowski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2016.08.026","article-title":"High-resolution UAV-based thermal imaging to estimate the instantaneous and seasonal variability of plant water status within a vineyard","volume":"183","author":"Santesteban","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribeiro-Gomes, K., Hern\u00e1ndez-L\u00f3pez, D., Ortega, J., Ballesteros, R., Poblete, T., and Moreno, M. (2017). Uncooled thermal camera calibration and optimization of the photogrammetry process for UAV applications in agriculture. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102173"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5006","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5105006","article-title":"Processing and assessment of spectrometric, stereoscopic imagery collected using a lightweight UAV spectral camera for precision agriculture","volume":"5","author":"Honkavaara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, C., Xie, J., Wu, C., Gao, L., Chen, G., and Song, G. (2018). Enhancing the visibility of delamination during pulsed thermography of carbon fiber-reinforced plates using a stacked autoencoder. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092809"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-018-0489-x","article-title":"Detectability of subsurface defects with different width-to-depth ratios in concrete structures using pulsed thermography","volume":"37","author":"Tran","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1088\/0022-3735\/3\/2\/308","article-title":"A black-body source of radiation covering a wavelength range from the ultraviolet to the infrared","volume":"3","author":"Lapworth","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Phys. E Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2014.02.010","article-title":"Thermal performance analysis of vacuum variable-temperature blackbody system","volume":"64","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/10\/1\/004","article-title":"A low-temperature blackbody reference source to \u221240 \u00b0C","volume":"10","author":"Chu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2007.06.001","article-title":"Design and characterisation of blackbody sources for infrared wide-band Fourier transform spectroscopy","volume":"51","author":"Palchetti","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s10765-007-0355-z","article-title":"Vacuum variable-temperature blackbody VTBB100","volume":"29","author":"Morozova","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Thermophys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.6028\/jres.100.044","article-title":"A Third Generation Water Bath Based Blackbody Source","volume":"100","author":"Fowler","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sapritsky, V.I., Mekhontsev, S.N., Prokhorov, A.V., Sudarev, K.A., Khromchenko, V.B., and Samoilov, M.L. (1998, January 19\u201324). Precision large-area low- and medium-temperature blackbody sources. Proceedings of the SPIE\u2019s International Symposium on Optical Science, Engineering, and Instrumentation, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.331338"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1007\/s10765-011-0962-6","article-title":"Construction and Characterization of a Large Aperture Blackbody for Infrared Radiometer Calibration","volume":"32","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Thermophys."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"2","article-title":"A large aperture blackbody bath for calibration of thermal imagers","volume":"24","author":"Miklavec","year":"2012","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bae, J.Y., Lee, K.-Y., Hwan, H., Nam, K.-H., Hong, S.-J., Lee, A.-H., Chang, K.S., Kim, G.-H., and Kim, G. (2017). 3D defect localization on exothermic faults within multi-layered structures using lock-in thermography: An experimental and numerical approach. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102331"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.60.597","article-title":"The thermal expansion of pure metals: Copper, gold, aluminum, nickel, and iron","volume":"60","author":"Nix","year":"1941","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1959","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.109.1959","article-title":"Use of thermal expansion measurements to detect lattice vacancies near the melting point of pure lead and aluminum","volume":"109","author":"Feder","year":"1958","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRev.112.136","article-title":"Thermal expansion of some crystals with the diamond structure","volume":"112","author":"Gibbons","year":"1958","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"McBride, B.J., Gordon, S., and Reno, M.A. (2001). Thermodynamic Data for Fifty Reference Elements."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3253100","article-title":"Thermal conductivity of the elements","volume":"1","author":"Ho","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2016.05.086","article-title":"Thermal performance analysis of multiple borehole heat exchangers","volume":"122","author":"Gultekin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Energy Conv. Manag."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1068\/htwu71","article-title":"Heat-transfer mechanisms in polyurethane rigid foam","volume":"33","author":"Biedermann","year":"2001","journal-title":"High Temp.-High Press."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/20\/5836\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:21:52Z","timestamp":1760178112000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/20\/5836"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,15]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s20205836"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20205836","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,15]]}}}