{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:23:35Z","timestamp":1760239415124,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]],"date-time":"2020-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1604620800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005632","name":"Narodowe Centrum Bada\u0144 i Rozwoju","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["POIR.04.01.02-00-0082\/17-00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POIR.04.01.02-00-0082\/17-00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005632","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nowadays, the dynamic development of technology allows for the design of systems based on various information sources and their integration into hybrid expert systems. One of the areas of research where such systems are especially helpful is emotion analysis. The sympathetic nervous system controls emotions, while its function is directly reflected by the electrodermal activity (EDA) signal. The presented study aimed to develop a tool and propose a physiological data set to complement the psychological data. The study group consisted of 41 students aged from 19 to 26 years. The presented research protocol was based on the acquisition of the electrodermal activity signal using the Empatica E4 device during three exercises performed in a prototype Disc4Spine system and using the psychological research methods. Different methods (hierarchical and non-hierarchical) of subsequent data clustering and optimisation in the context of emotions experienced were analysed. The best results were obtained for the k-means classifier during Exercise 3 (80.49%) and for the combination of the EDA signal with negative emotions (80.48%). A comparison of accuracy of the k-means classification with the independent division made by a psychologist revealed again the best results for negative emotions (78.05%).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20216343","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]],"date-time":"2020-11-06T09:09:30Z","timestamp":1604653770000},"page":"6343","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Hybrid System of Emotion Evaluation in Physiotherapeutic Procedures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1689-4347","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrycja","family":"Romaniszyn-Kania","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Roosevelta 40, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9921-6607","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anita","family":"Pollak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Bankowa 12, 40-007 Katowice, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5912-2753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Danch-Wierzchowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Roosevelta 40, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland"}]},{"given":"Damian","family":"Kania","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Physiotherapy and Health Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Miko\u0142owska 72A, 40-065 Katowice, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2183-1156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrzej P.","family":"My\u015bliwiec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Physiotherapy and Health Sciences, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Miko\u0142owska 72A, 40-065 Katowice, Poland"}]},{"given":"Ewa","family":"Pi\u0119tka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Roosevelta 40, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland"}]},{"given":"Andrzej W.","family":"Mitas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Roosevelta 40, 41-800 Zabrze, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1111\/1440-1630.12006","article-title":"Knowledge, skills and professional behaviours required by occupational therapist and physiotherapist beginning practitioners in work-related practice: A systematic review","volume":"60","author":"Adam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aust. Occup. Ther. J."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"242","article-title":"The acceptability of healthcare: From satisfaction to trust","volume":"33","author":"Dyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Community Dent. Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.69.4.655","article-title":"Changes in beliefs, catastrophizing, and coping are associated with improvement in multidisciplinary pain treatment","volume":"69","author":"Jensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Lazarus, R.S., and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, Springer Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinto, G., Carvalho, J.M., Barros, F., Soares, S.C., Pinho, A.J., and Br\u00e1s, S. (2020). Multimodal Emotion Evaluation: A Physiological Model for Cost-Effective Emotion Classification. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20123510"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.110","article-title":"Emotional states and physical health","volume":"55","author":"Salovey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.00073","article-title":"Stress, positive emotion, and coping","volume":"9","author":"Folkman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2960413","article-title":"Detecting users\u2019 cognitive load by galvanic skin response with affective interference","volume":"7","author":"Nourbakhsh","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Interact. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(97)00040-3","article-title":"Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress","volume":"45","author":"Folkman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135217","article-title":"Emotions, morbidity, and mortality: New perspectives from psychoneuroimmunology","volume":"53","author":"McGuire","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01220.x","article-title":"Embodying psychological thriving: Physical thriving in response to stress","volume":"54","author":"Epel","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010796329158","article-title":"The undoing effect of positive emotions","volume":"24","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Motiv. Emot."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.56.3.218","article-title":"The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions","volume":"56","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.46.8.819","article-title":"Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion","volume":"46","author":"Lazarus","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.75.4.887","article-title":"Negative information weighs more heavily on the brain: The negativity bias in evaluative categorizations","volume":"75","author":"Ito","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Personal. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.60.7.678","article-title":"Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing","volume":"60","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.2307\/30040627","article-title":"Do high job demands increase intrinsic motivation or fatigue or both? The role of job control and job social support","volume":"46","author":"Hagedoorn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6612338","article-title":"Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions","volume":"221","author":"Ekman","year":"1983","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2009.2038487","article-title":"A wearable sensor for unobtrusive, long-term assessment of electrodermal activity","volume":"57","author":"Poh","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brancaccio, G., and Russo, T. (2016). Anatomy and Physiology of Sweat Glands. Hyperhidrosis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-26923-8_1"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(02)00123-X","article-title":"Emotional sweating response in a patient with bilateral amygdala damage","volume":"47","author":"Asahina","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Posada-Quintero, H.F., and Chon, K.H. (2020). Innovations in Electrodermal Activity Data Collection and Signal Processing: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20020479"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2478\/acm-2013-0006","article-title":"Heart rate variability and electrodermal activity as noninvasive indices of sympathovagal balance in response to stress","volume":"13","author":"Visnovcova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Medica Martiniana"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hovsepian, K., Al\u2019Absi, M., Ertin, E., Kamarck, T., Nakajima, M., and Kumar, S. (2015, January 7\u201311). Stress: Towards a Gold Standard for Continuous Stress Assessment in the Mobile Environment. Proceedings of the 2015 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/2750858.2807526"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, H., Tyburski, M., Rahman, M.M., Hovsepian, K., Sharmin, M., Epstein, D.H., Preston, K.L., Furr-Holden, C.D., Milam, A., and Nahum-Shani, I. (2016, January 7\u201312). Finding Significant Stress Episodes in a Discontinuous Time Series of Rapidly Varying Mobile Sensor Data. Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2858036.2858218"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samadiani, N., Huang, G., Cai, B., Luo, W., Chi, C.H., Xiang, Y., and He, J. (2019). A Review on Automatic Facial Expression Recognition Systems Assisted by Multimodal Sensor Data. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19081863"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbi.2017.08.006","article-title":"Monitoring stress with a wrist device using context","volume":"73","author":"Gjoreski","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Inform."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalimeri, K., and Saitis, C. (2016, January 12\u201316). Exploring multimodal biosignal features for stress detection during indoor mobility. Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, Tokyo Japan.","DOI":"10.1145\/2993148.2993159"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2009.2036164","article-title":"Discriminating stress from cognitive load using a wearable EDA device","volume":"14","author":"Setz","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y., Ruiz, N., Taib, R., Choi, E., and Chen, F. (2007). Galvanic skin response (GSR) as an index of cognitive load. CHI\u201907 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systemsm, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/1240866.1241057"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Ikehara, C.S., and Crosby, M.E. (2005, January 6). Assessing cognitive load with physiological sensors. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Big Island, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Visnovcova, Z., Bona Olexova, L., Sekaninova, N., Ondrejka, I., Hrtanek, I., Cesnekova, D., Kelcikova, S., Farsky, I., and Tonhajzerova, I. (2020). Spectral and Nonlinear Analysis of Electrodermal Activity in Adolescent Anorexia Nervosa. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10134514"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"TaheriNejad, N., and Pollreisz, D. (2016, January 14). Assessment of physiological signals during happiness, sadness, pain or anger. Proceedings of the International Conference on Wireless Mobile Communication and Healthcare, Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-58877-3_14"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, M., Fan, D., Zhang, X., and Gong, X. (2016, January 25\u201326). Human emotion recognition based on galvanic skin response signal feature selection and svm. Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Smart City and Systems Engineering (ICSCSE), Hunan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSCSE.2016.0051"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Nakasone, A., Prendinger, H., and Ishizuka, M. (2005, January 6\u20138). Emotion recognition from electromyography and skin conductance. Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Biosignal Interpretation, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2018.06.014","article-title":"A wavelet-based approach to emotion classification using EDA signals","volume":"112","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szurmik, T., Bibrowicz, K., Lipowicz, A., and Mitas, A.W. (2020). Methods of Therapy of Scoliosis and Technical Functionalities of DISC4SPINE (D4S) Diagnostic and Therapeutic System. Information Technology in Biomedicine, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49666-1_16"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bibrowicz, K., Szurmik, T., Lipowicz, A., and Mitas, A.W. (2020). Application of Original System to Support Specialist Physiotherapy D4S in Correction of Postural Defects as Compared to Other Methods\u2014A Review. Information Technology in Biomedicine, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49666-1_15"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/1748-7161-1-4","article-title":"Why do we treat adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? What we want to obtain and to avoid for our patients. SOSORT 2005 Consensus paper","volume":"1","author":"Negrini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Scoliosis"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romaniszyn, P., Kania, D., Bugdol, M.N., Pollak, A., and Mitas, A.W. (2020). Behavioral and Physiological Profile Analysis While Exercising\u2014Case Study. Information Technology in Biomedicine, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49666-1_13"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\u0144ka, A., Romaniszyn, P., Bugdol, M.N., and Mitas, A.W. (2020). Methods for Assessing the Subject\u2019s Multidimensional Psychophysiological State in Terms of Proper Rehabilitation. Information Technology in Biomedicine, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-49666-1_17"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2020, November 01). E4 Wristband User\u2019s Manual 20150608, Available online: https:\/\/empatica.app.box.com\/v\/E4-User-Manual."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1037\/1076-8998.5.2.219","article-title":"Using the Job-Related Affective Well-Being Scale (JAWS) to investigate affective responses to work stressors","volume":"5","author":"Fox","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Occup. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"McDonald Roderick, P. (1999). Test Theory: A Unified Treatment, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Hornowska, E. (2009). Testy psychologiczne. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010","article-title":"Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review","volume":"84","author":"Kreibig","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1097\/ACO.0b013e3283183fe4","article-title":"Changes in skin conductance as a tool to monitor nociceptive stimulation and pain","volume":"21","author":"Storm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nourbakhsh, N., Wang, Y., Chen, F., and Calvo, R.A. (2012, January 26\u201330). Using galvanic skin response for cognitive load measurement in arithmetic and reading tasks. Proceedings of the 24th Australian Computer-Human Interaction Conference, Melbourne, Australia.","DOI":"10.1145\/2414536.2414602"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"19","article-title":"Emotion recognition using cvxEDA-based features","volume":"10","author":"Ferdinando","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Telecommun. Electron. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83581","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2923856","article-title":"Biometric Recognition Using Multimodal Physiological Signals","volume":"7","author":"Bianco","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Nielsen, O.M. (1998). Wavelets in Scientific Computing. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technical University of Denmark]."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boucsein, W. (2012). Electrodermal Activity, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1126-0"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"797","article-title":"cvxEDA: A convex optimization approach to electrodermal activity processing","volume":"63","author":"Greco","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2020, November 01). Job-Related Affective Well-Being Scale, JAWS. Available online: http:\/\/shell.cas.usf.edu\/~pspector\/scales\/jawsscor.html."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-015-0600-5","article-title":"PsiMLE: A maximum-likelihood estimation approach to estimating psychophysical scaling and variability more reliably, efficiently, and flexibly","volume":"48","author":"Odic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Duong, K.C., and Vrain, C. (2015, January 4). Constrained minimum sum of squares clustering by constraint programming. Proceedings of the International Conference on Principles and Practice of Constraint Programming, Cork, Ireland."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01890115","article-title":"Efficient algorithms for agglomerative hierarchical clustering methods","volume":"1","author":"Day","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Classif."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.2307\/2346830","article-title":"A K-means clustering algorithm. Applied Statistics","volume":"28","author":"Hartigan","year":"1979","journal-title":"Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-7439(95)00076-3","article-title":"Disturbance detection and isolation by dynamic principal component analysis","volume":"30","author":"Ku","year":"1995","journal-title":"Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.461","article-title":"Measuring information transfer","volume":"85","author":"Schreiber","year":"2000","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2017.00307","article-title":"Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values: Foundations, pliabilities, and pitfalls in research and practice","volume":"5","author":"Trevethan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Public Health"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/21\/6343\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:30:21Z","timestamp":1760178621000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/21\/6343"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s20216343"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20216343","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,6]]}}}