{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T15:34:29Z","timestamp":1760369669359,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,13]],"date-time":"2020-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605225600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Interference can significantly degrade the performance of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers. Therefore, mitigation methods are required to ensure reliable operations. However, as there are different types of interference, robust, multi-purpose mitigation algorithms are needed. This paper describes the most popular state-of-the-art interference mitigation techniques. The high-rate DFT-based data manipulator (HDDM) is proposed as a possible solution to overcome their limitations. This paper presents a hardware implementation of the HDDM algorithm. The hardware HDDM module is integrated in three different receivers equipped with analog radio-frequency (RF) front-ends supporting signals with different dynamic range. The resource utilization and power consumption is evaluated for the three cases. The algorithm is compared to a low-end mass-market receiver and a high-end professional receiver with basic and sophisticated interference mitigation capabilities, respectively. Different type of interference are used to compare the mitigation capabilities of the receivers under test. Results of the HDDM hardware implementation achieve the similar or improved performance to the state of the art. With more complex interferences, like frequency hopping or pulsed, the HDDM shows even better performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226492","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,13]],"date-time":"2020-11-13T10:32:47Z","timestamp":1605263567000},"page":"6492","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["HDDM Hardware Evaluation for Robust Interference Mitigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2597-4429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Garzia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite-Based Positioning Systems Department, Fraunhofer IIS, Nordostpark 84, 90411 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8441-5515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johannes Rossouw","family":"van der Merwe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite-Based Positioning Systems Department, Fraunhofer IIS, Nordostpark 84, 90411 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5927-4685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"R\u00fcgamer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite-Based Positioning Systems Department, Fraunhofer IIS, Nordostpark 84, 90411 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Santiago","family":"Urquijo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite-Based Positioning Systems Department, Fraunhofer IIS, Nordostpark 84, 90411 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1927-7870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Felber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Satellite-Based Positioning Systems Department, Fraunhofer IIS, Nordostpark 84, 90411 Nuremberg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eliardsson, P., Alexandersson, M., Pattinson, M., Hill, S., Waern, A., Ying, Y., and Fryganiotis, D. (2017, January 4\u20137). Results from measuring campaign of electromagnetic interference in GPS L1-band. Proceedings of the 2017 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility\u2014EMC EUROPE, Angers, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMCEurope.2017.8094660"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., Meister, D., Otto, C., Stahl, M., R\u00fcgamer, A., Etxezarreta Martinez, J., and Felber, W. (2017, January 9\u201312). GNSS interference monitoring and characterisation station. Proceedings of the 2017 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Lausanne, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURONAV.2017.7954206"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bartl, S., Berglez, P., and Hofmann-Wellenhof, B. (2017, January 9\u201312). GNSS interference detection, classification and localization using Software-Defined Radio. Proceedings of the 2017 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Lausanne, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURONAV.2017.7954205"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcos, E.P., Caizzone, S., Konovaltsev, A., Cuntz, M., Elmarissi, W., Yinusa, K., and Meurer, M. (2018, January 23\u201326). Interference awareness and characterization for GNSS maritime applications. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2018.8373469"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashemi, A., Thombre, S., Giorgia Ferrara, N., Zahidul, M., Bhuiyan, H., and Pattinson, M. (2019, January 4\u20136). STRIKE3-case study for standardized testing of timing-grade GNSS receivers against real-world interference threats. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS), Nuremberg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS.2019.8752948"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Hegarty, C., Van Dierendonck, A., Bobyn, D., Tran, M., and Grabowski, J. (2000, January 26\u201328). Suppression of pulsed interference through blanking. Proceedings of the IAIN World Congress and the 56th Annual Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Mitch, R.H., Dougherty, R.C., Psiaki, M.L., Powell, S.P., O\u2019Hanlon, B.W., Bhatti, J.A., and Humphreys, T.E. (2011, January 19\u201323). Signal characteristics of civil GPS jammers. Proceedings of the 24th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., Garzia, F., R\u00fcgamer, A., and Felber, W. (2020, January 20\u201323). High-rate DFT-based data manipulator (HDDM) algorithm for effective interference mitigation. Proceedings of the IEEE\/ION PLANS, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS46316.2020.9109950"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garzia, F., Van der Merwe, J.R., R\u00fcgamer, A., and Felber, W. (2020, January 2\u20134). Hardware implementation and evaluation of the HDDM. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS), Tampere, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS49876.2020.9115507"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., Garzia, F., Saad, M., Kreh, B., R\u00fcgamer, A., Monroy Gonzalez Plata, R., and Felber, W. (2020, January 21\u201325). Receiver bandwidth compression for multi-GNSS signal processing. Proceedings of the 33rd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2020), St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2020.17681"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Betz, J.W., and Goldstein, D.B. (2002, January 24\u201327). Candidate designs for an additional civil signal in GPS spectral Bands. Proceedings of the Institute of Navigation Technical Meeting, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA460213"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Kaplan, E.D., and Hegarty, C.J. (2006). Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., R\u00fcgamer, A., and Felber, W. (2020, January 2\u20134). Simultaneous jamming and navigation pseudolite system. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS), Tampere, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS49876.2020.9115527"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musumeci, L., and Dovis, F. (2012, January 25\u201327). A comparison of transformed-domain techniques for pulsed interference removal on GNSS signals. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Localization and GNSS, Starnberg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS.2012.6253131"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borio, D. (June, January 30). Swept GNSS jamming mitigation through pulse blanking. Proceedings of the 2016 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Helsinki, Finland.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURONAV.2016.7530549"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00fcgamer, A., Joshi, S., van der Merwe, J.R., Garzia, F., Felber, W., Wendel, J., and Schubert, F.M. (2017, January 25\u201329). Chirp mitigation for wideband GNSS signals with filter bank pulse blanking. Proceedings of the 30th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2017), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2017.15289"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2007.914780","article-title":"Two-pole and multi-pole notch filters: A computationally effective solution for GNSS interference detection and mitigation","volume":"2","author":"Borio","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"67","article-title":"Tracking and mitigating a jamming signal with an adaptive notch filter","volume":"9","author":"Borio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Inside GNSS"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wendel, J., Schubert, F.M., R\u00fcgamer, A., and Taschke, S. (2016, January 12\u201316). Limits of narrowband interference mitigation using adaptive notch filters. Proceedings of the 29th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2016), Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2016.14799"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamba, M.T., and Falletti, E. (2019, January 4\u20136). Performance comparison of FLL adaptive notch filters to counter GNSS jamming. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Localization and GNSS (ICL-GNSS), Nuremberg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICL-GNSS.2019.8752751"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Tsang, C. (1990, January 4\u20139). Operation principle and loss of blanking pulse of the navigation system on Space Shuttle. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Aerospace Applications, Vail, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Powe, M., and Owen, J.I.R. (2004, January 21\u201324). The European GNSS L5\/E5 Interference Environment and the Performance of Pulsed Interference Mitigation Techniques. Proceedings of the 17th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2004), Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Gao, G.X. (2007, January 25\u201328). DME\/TACAN interference and its mitigation in L5\/E5 bands. Proceedings of the 20th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2007), Fort Worth, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., R\u00fcgamer, A., Garzia, F., Felber, W., and Wendel, J. (2018, January 23\u201326). Evaluation of mitigation methods against COTS PPDs. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2018.8373470"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borio, D. (2018, January 14\u201317). Sub-band robust GNSS signal processing for jamming mitigation. Proceedings of the 2018 European Navigation Conference (ENC), Gothenburg, Sweden.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURONAV.2018.8433250"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borio, D., Li, H., and Closas, P. (2018). Huber\u2019s non-linearity for GNSS interference mitigation. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072217"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1002\/navi.300","article-title":"Robust transform domain signal processing for GNSS","volume":"66","author":"Borio","year":"2019","journal-title":"NAVIGATION J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Gamba, M.T., Falletti, E., Rovelli, D., and Tuozzi, A. (2012, January 17\u201321). FPGA implementation issues of a two-pole adaptive notch filter for GPS\/Galileo receivers. Proceedings of the 25th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-spr.2015.0310","article-title":"Loop analysis of adaptive notch filters","volume":"10","author":"Borio","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamba, M.T., and Falletti, E. (2018, January 5\u20137). Performance analysis of FLL schemes to track swept jammers in an adaptive notch filter. Proceedings of the 2018 9th ESA Workshop on Satellite Navigation Technologies and European Workshop on GNSS Signals and Signal Processing (NAVITEC), Noordwijk, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1109\/NAVITEC.2018.8642663"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., R\u00fcgamer, A., Garzia, F., and Felber, W. (2019, January 16\u201320). Wavelet based adaptive notch filtering to mitigate COTS PPDs. Proceedings of the 32nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2019), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2019.17068"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Raimondi, M., Julien, O., Macabiau, C., and Bastide, F. (2006, January 26\u201329). Mitigating pulsed interference using frequency domain adaptive filtering. Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2006), Fort Worth, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2013.6494387","article-title":"Analytical performance of GNSS receivers using interference mitigation techniques","volume":"49","author":"Ojeda","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Wu, H., and Gao, Y. (2013, January 16\u201320). Transform domain interference suppression in GPS\/BD-2 receiver based on fractional Fourier transform. Proceedings of the 26th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2013), Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Liu, A., An, J., and Wang, A. (2010, January 11\u201314). Effect of transform domain interference suppression on PN code tracking loops. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE 12th International Conference on Communication Technology, Nanjing, China."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Gabelli, G., Casile, R., Guidotti, A., and Corazza, G.E. (2013, January 27\u201329). GNSS Jamming Interference: Characterization and Cancellation. Proceedings of the 2013 International Technical Meeting of the Institute of Navigation, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, W., Guo, M., and Chen, J.B. (2014, January 18\u201320). A New Narrowband Interference Mitigation Algorithm Based on Adaptive Wavelet Packet Decomposition. Proceedings of the 2014 Fourth International Conference on Instrumentation and Measurement, Computer, Communication and Control, Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMCCC.2014.10"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Dovis, F. (2015). GNSS Interference Threats and Countermeasures, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chien, Y., and Chen, P. (2015, January 12\u201315). Wavelet-packet-transform-based adaptive predictor to mitigate GNSS jammers. Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Wavelet Analysis and Pattern Recognition (ICWAPR), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICWAPR.2015.7295919"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2017.2710235","article-title":"Time-Frequency Analysis for GNSSs: From interference mitigation to system monitoring","volume":"34","author":"Amin","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Mag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdoush, Y., Pojani, G., Bartolucci, M., and Corazza, G.E. (2017, January 21\u201325). Time-frequency interference rejection based on the S-transform for GNSS applications. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7996554"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3096","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2654541","article-title":"Performance Assessment of Time-Frequency RFI Mitigation Techniques in Microwave Radiometry","volume":"10","author":"Querol","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Querol, J., and Camps, A. (2017, January 25\u201329). Real-time Pre-correlation Anti-jamming System for Civilian GNSS Receivers. Proceedings of the 30th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2017), Portland, ON, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2017.15304"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1587\/transfun.E100.A.602","article-title":"Novel Anti-Jamming Algorithm for GNSS Receivers Using Wavelet-Packet-Transform-Based Adaptive Predictors","volume":"E100.A","author":"Chien","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Fundam. Electron. Commun. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2756","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2018.5792","article-title":"MP mitigation in GNSS positioning by GRU NNs and adaptive wavelet filtering","volume":"13","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vos, E.E., Francois Luus, P.S., Finlay, C.J., and Bassett, B.A. (2019, January 13\u201316). A Generative Machine Learning Approach to RFI Mitigation for Radio Astronomy. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE 29th International Workshop on Machine Learning for Signal Processing (MLSP), Pittsburgh, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MLSP.2019.8918820"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Van der Merwe, J.R., R\u00fcgamer, A., and Garzia, F. (2019). High-Rate DFT-Based Data Manipulator And Data Manipulation Method for High Performance and Robust Signal Processing. (19163779), European Patent."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1109\/TAU.1967.1161901","article-title":"The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms","volume":"15","author":"Welch","year":"1967","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoust."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1109\/78.149998","article-title":"A unified approach to the STFT, TFDs, and instantaneous frequency","volume":"40","author":"Kootsookos","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-vis:19949915","article-title":"Radix-2 FFT-pipeline architecture with reduced noise-to-signal ratio","volume":"141","author":"Storn","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Vis. Image Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urquijo, S., R\u00fcgamer, A., Milosiu, H., and Felber, W. (2019, January 16\u201320). Dual-channel Configurable GNSS Receiver Front-end for Wideband Reception. Proceedings of the 32nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2019), Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2019.16982"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/22\/6492\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:33:12Z","timestamp":1760178792000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/22\/6492"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,13]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s20226492"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20226492","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,13]]}}}