{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T18:06:40Z","timestamp":1774375600463,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,19]],"date-time":"2020-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1605744000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2018M3A9G5075749"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2018M3A9G5075749"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003693","name":"Korea Institute of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2E30080"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2E30080"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003693","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002642","name":"Korea University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K1811061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K1811061"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002642","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aims at creating low-cost, three-dimensional (3D), freehand ultrasound image reconstructions from commercial two-dimensional (2D) probes. The low-cost system that can be attached to a commercial 2D ultrasound probe consists of commercial ultrasonic distance sensors, a gimbal, and an inertial measurement unit (IMU). To calibrate irregular movements of the probe during scanning, relative position data were collected from the ultrasonic sensors that were attached to a gimbal. The directional information was provided from the IMU. All the data and 2D ultrasound images were combined using a personal computer to reconstruct 3D ultrasound image. The relative position error of the proposed system was less than 0.5%. The overall shape of the cystic mass in the breast phantom was similar to those from 2D and sections of 3D ultrasound images. Additionally, the pressure and deformations of lesions could be obtained and compensated by contacting the probe to the surface of the soft tissue using the acquired position data. The proposed method did not require any initial marks or receivers for the reconstruction of a 3D ultrasound image using a 2D ultrasound probe. Even though our system is less than $500, a valuable volumetric ultrasound image could be provided to the users.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s20226613","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,19]],"date-time":"2020-11-19T06:23:52Z","timestamp":1605767032000},"page":"6613","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Versatile Low-Cost Volumetric 3D Ultrasound Imaging Using Gimbal-Assisted Distance Sensors and an Inertial Measurement Unit"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Taehyung","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dong-Hyun","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Micro Nano Fab Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shinyong","family":"Shim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1152-4398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maesoon","family":"Im","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bo Kyoung","family":"Seo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, Korea University Ansan Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Ansan 15355, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9527-0609","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyungmin","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bionics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7702-716X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Byung Chul","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"d472","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.d472","article-title":"Early life exposure to diagnostic radiation and ultrasound scans and risk of childhood cancer: Case-control study","volume":"342","author":"Rajaraman","year":"2011","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1053\/j.sult.2003.10.001","article-title":"Review of radiation issues for computed tomography","volume":"25","author":"Frush","year":"2004","journal-title":"Semin. Ultrasound CT MRI"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1053\/j.sult.2011.09.003","article-title":"Fetal risk in diagnostic radiology","volume":"33","author":"Nguyen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Semin. Ultrasound CT MRI"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6027029","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6027029","article-title":"A review on real-time 3D ultrasound imaging technology","volume":"2017","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2017.06.009","article-title":"Freehand 3-D ultrasound imaging: A systematic review","volume":"43","author":"Mozaffari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.2412051710","article-title":"Operator dependence of physician-performed whole-breast US: Lesion detection and characterization","volume":"241","author":"Berg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0096(199706)25:5<249::AID-JCU5>3.0.CO;2-D","article-title":"The accuracy of ultrasound evaluation of amniotic fluid volume in singleton pregnancies: The effect of operator experience and ultrasound interpretative technique","volume":"25","author":"Magann","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1007\/s11547-013-0338-z","article-title":"Comparison between different imaging techniques in the evaluation of malignant breast lesions: Can 3D ultrasound be useful?","volume":"119","author":"Clauser","year":"2014","journal-title":"Radiol. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2004.1320770","article-title":"Real-time rectilinear 3-D ultrasound using receive mode multiplexing","volume":"51","author":"Yen","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1109\/58.818752","article-title":"Sparse 2-D array design for real time rectilinear volumetric imaging","volume":"47","author":"Yen","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1109\/58.148536","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of transducer elements in two-dimensional arrays for medical ultrasound imaging","volume":"39","author":"Turnbull","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1243\/09544119JEIM586","article-title":"Three-dimensional ultrasound imaging","volume":"224","author":"Prager","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. PartH J. Eng. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R67","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/46\/5\/201","article-title":"Three-dimensional ultrasound imaging","volume":"46","author":"Fenster","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2000.921630","article-title":"A real-time freehand 3D ultrasound system for image-guided surgery","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Welch","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 2000 IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, an International Symposium (Cat. No.00CH37121)"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S1361-8415(99)80003-6","article-title":"Stradx: Real-time acquisition and visualization of freehand three-dimensional ultrasound","volume":"3","author":"Prager","year":"1999","journal-title":"Med. Image Anal."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, Y., Tian, J., Xue, J., and Liu, J. (September, January 30). A qualitative and quantitative interaction technique for freehand 3D ultrasound imaging. Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2006.259229"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/0161734617718528","article-title":"Low-cost volumetric ultrasound by augmentation of 2D systems: Design and prototype","volume":"40","author":"Herickhoff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ultrason. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2248","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2018.2821901","article-title":"Versatile low-cost volumetric 3-D ultrasound platform for existing clinical 2-D systems","volume":"37","author":"Morgan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2527","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2014.2322864","article-title":"PLUS: Open-source toolkit for ultrasound-guided intervention systems","volume":"61","author":"Lasso","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mri.2012.05.001","article-title":"3D Slicer as an image computing platform for the quantitative imaging network","volume":"30","author":"Fedorov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1109\/70.127239","article-title":"Quaternion kinematic and dynamic differential equations","volume":"8","author":"Chou","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1145\/325165.325242","article-title":"Animating rotation with quaternion curves","volume":"19","author":"Shoemake","year":"1985","journal-title":"ACM Siggraph Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.1415","article-title":"Integration of the OpenIGTLink network protocol for image-guided therapy with the medical platform MeVisLab","volume":"8","author":"Egger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Robot. Comput. Assist. Surg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/rcs.274","article-title":"OpenIGTLink: An open network protocol for image-guided therapy environment","volume":"5","author":"Tokuda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Robot. Comput. Assist. Surg."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/22\/6613\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:34:08Z","timestamp":1760178848000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/20\/22\/6613"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,19]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s20226613"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s20226613","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,19]]}}}