{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T16:12:09Z","timestamp":1783527129602,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,26]],"date-time":"2020-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1608940800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education","award":["109-TPRP-02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["109-TPRP-02"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["109-2410-H-128-016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["109-2410-H-128-016"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Temperature sensors with a communication capability can help monitor and report temperature values to a control station, which enables dynamic and real-time evacuation paths in fire emergencies. As compared to traditional approaches that identify a one-shot fire evacuation path, in this paper, we develop an intelligent algorithm that can identify time-aware and temperature-aware fire evacuation paths by considering temperature changes at different time slots in multi-story and multi-exit buildings. We first propose a method that can map three-dimensional multi-story multi-exit buildings into a two-dimensional graph. Then, a mathematical optimization model is proposed to capture this time-aware and temperature-aware evacuation path problem in multi-story multi-exit buildings. Six fire evacuation algorithms (BFS, SP, DBFS, TABFS, TASP and TADBFS) are proposed to identify the efficient evacuation path. The first three algorithms that do not address human temperature limit constraints can be used by rescue robots or firemen with fire-proof suits. The last three algorithms that address human temperature limit constraints can be used by evacuees in terms of total time slots and total temperature on the evacuation path. In the computational experiments, the open space building and the Taipei 101 Shopping Mall are all tested to verify the solution quality of these six algorithms. From the computational results, TABFS, TASP and TADBF identify almost the same evacuation path in open space building and the Taipei 101 Shopping Mall. BFS, SP DBFS can locate marginally better results in terms of evacuation time and total temperature on the evacuation path. When considering evacuating a group of evacuees, the computational time of the evacuation algorithm is very important in a time-limited evacuation process. Considering the extreme case of seven fires in eight emergency exits in the Taipei 101 Shopping Mall, the golden window for evacuation is 15 time slots. Only TABFS and TADBFS are applicable to evacuate 1200 people in the Taipei 101 Shopping Mall when one time slot is setting as one minute. The computational results show that the capacity limit for the Taipei 101 Shopping Mall is 800 people in the extreme case of seven fires. In this case, when the number of people in the building is less than 700, TADBFS should be adopted. When the number of people in the building is greater than 700, TABFS can evacuate more people than TADBFS. Besides identifying an efficient evacuation path, another significant contribution of this paper is to identify the best sensor density deployment at large buildings like the Taipei 101 Shopping Mall in considering the fire evacuation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21010111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,27]],"date-time":"2020-12-27T20:52:21Z","timestamp":1609102341000},"page":"111","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Time-Aware and Temperature-Aware Fire Evacuation Path Algorithm in IoT-Enabled Multi-Story Multi-Exit Buildings"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Hong-Hsu","family":"Yen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Management, Shih Hsin University, Taipei 116, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng-Han","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Management, Shih Hsin University, Taipei 116, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hung-Wei","family":"Tsao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information Management, Shih Hsin University, Taipei 116, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"77","article-title":"Survivability profiling: How long can victims survive in a fire?","volume":"163","author":"Marsar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fire Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1016\/j.burns.2005.11.006","article-title":"Theoretical evaluation of burns to the human respiratory tract due to inhalation of hot gas in the early stage of fires","volume":"32","author":"Lv","year":"2006","journal-title":"Burns"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"308","article-title":"Determination of the Critical Time of Fire in the Building and Ensure Successful Evacuation of People","volume":"63","author":"Hulida","year":"2019","journal-title":"Period. Polytech. Civil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Purser, D.A. (1995). Toxicity assessment of combustion products. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, NFPA. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"94","article-title":"Evaluating the Smoke Hazard from Fires in Large Spaces","volume":"2","author":"Milke","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Eng. Perform. Based Fire Codes"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1842","article-title":"Intelligent fire detection and alert system using LabVIEW","volume":"9","author":"Idris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Electr. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"4657","article-title":"Internet of things based industrial environment monitoring and control: A design approach. Int","volume":"9","author":"Jaber","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electr. Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"8595404","article-title":"IoT in Action: Design and Implementation of a Building Evacuation Service","volume":"2017","author":"Gokceli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Comput. Netw. Commun."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saeed, F., Paul, A., Rehman, A., Hong, W.H., and Seo, H. (2018). IoT-Based Intelligent Modeling of Smart Home Environment for Fire Prevention and Safety. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan7010011"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eggly, G., Finochietto, J., Micheletto, M., Centelles, R., Santos, R., Ochoa, S., Meseguer, R., and Orozco, J. (2019). Evacuation Supporting System Based on IoT Components. Proceedings, 31.","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2019031038"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Guo, J., Xiong, H., Liu, X.X., and Zhang, D. (2019). A Framework for an Intelligent and Personalized Fire Evacuation Management System. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143128"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1109\/JAS.2018.7511231","article-title":"Optimization of Grouping Evacuation Strategy in High-rise Building Fires Based on Graph Theory and Computational Experiments","volume":"5","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE\/CAA J. Autom. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"312","article-title":"Modeling of Emergency Evacuation in Building Fire","volume":"41","author":"Bayat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.26411\/83-1734-2015-4-44-4-19","article-title":"Emergency Evacuation Route Choice Based on Improved Ant Colony Algorithm","volume":"44","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Logist. Transp."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64101","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2915241","article-title":"Mobile Fire Evacuation System for Large Public Buildings Based on Artificial Intelligence and IoT","volume":"7","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7962952","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/7962952","article-title":"Applied Artificial Bee Colony Optimization Algorithm in Fire Evacuation Routing System","volume":"2018","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Math."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, L., Guo, H., Zhang, H., Kong, Q., Zhang, A., and Gong, C. (2020). An Efficient Staged Evacuation Planning Algorithm Applied to Multi-Exit Buildings. ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9010046"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"365","article-title":"A risk-based model of evacuation route optimization under fire","volume":"211","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fragkos, G., Apostolopoulos, P.A., and Tsiropoulou, E.E. (2019). ESCAPE: Evacuation Strategy through Clustering and Autonomous Operation in Public Safety Systems. Future Internet, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/fi11010020"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, Y., Zhang, J., Zhang, Y., and Xiao, J. (2019). Modeling Evacuation of High-Rise Buildings Based on Intelligence Decision P System. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11174685"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1108\/IJBPA-08-2017-0033","article-title":"Multi-storey residential buildings and occupant\u2019s behaviour during fire evacuation in the UK: Factors relevant to the development of evacuation strategies","volume":"36","author":"Gerges","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Build. Pathol. Adapt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1007\/s13319-017-0120-4","article-title":"An Information Perception-Based Emotion Contagion Model for Fire Evacuation","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"3D Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2016.10.009","article-title":"Evacuation dynamics considering pedestrians\u2019 movement behavior change with fire and smoke spreading","volume":"92","author":"Zheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-018-0743-x","article-title":"Effects of Environment Knowledge in Evacuation Scenarios Involving Fire and Smoke: A Multiscale Modelling and Simulation Approach","volume":"55","author":"Richardson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fire Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.3329\/jce.v30i1.34795","article-title":"Fire Emergency Evacuation Simulation of a shopping mall using Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS)","volume":"30","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W9-273-2018","article-title":"Fire Evacuation Simulation Considering the Movement of Pedestrian According to Fire Spread","volume":"42","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.04.006","article-title":"Agent-Based Modelling and Simulation for evacuation of people from a building in case of fire","volume":"130","author":"Kasereka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2018.02.022","article-title":"Incorporating intelligence for typical evacuation under the threat of fire spreading","volume":"106","author":"Shuaib","year":"2018","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.firesaf.2017.03.029","article-title":"A forensic analysis of a fatal fire in an indoor shooting range using coupled fire and evacuation modelling tools","volume":"91","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fire Saf. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSS.2018.2823869","article-title":"A Quantitative Study of Factors Influence on Evacuation in Building Fire Emergencies","volume":"5","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput. Soc. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2019.06.010","article-title":"Modelling and numerical simulation of pedestrian flow evacuation from a multi-storey historical building in the event of fire applying safety engineering tools","volume":"41","author":"Caliendo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.culher.2016.06.008","article-title":"Intelligent evacuation guidance systems for improving fire safety of Italian-style historical theatres without altering their architectural characteristics","volume":"22","author":"Bernardini","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cult. Herit."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ronchi, E., Kuligowski, E.D., Nilsson, D., Reneke, P.A., and Peacock, R.D. (2016). Assessing the Verification and Validation of Building Fire Evacuation Models. Fire Technol., 197\u2013219.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10694-014-0432-3"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atila, U., Ortakci, Y., Ozacar, K., Demiral, E., and Karas, I.R. (2018). SmartEscape: A Mobile Smart Individual Fire Evacuation System Based on 3D Spatial Model. ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7060223"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, J., Andersen, P., Granmo, O., and Goodwin, M. (2020). Deep Q-Learning With Q-Matrix Transfer Learning for Novel Fire Evacuation Environment. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. Syst.","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.2020.2967936"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1109\/49.536364","article-title":"Quality-of-Service Routing for Supporting Multimedia Applications","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/TSSC.1968.300136","article-title":"A Formal Basis for the Heuristic Determination of Minimum Cost Paths","volume":"4","author":"Hart","year":"1968","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Sci. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1007\/s10846-017-0748-6","article-title":"L* Algorithm\u2014A Linear Computational Complexity Graph Searching Algorithm for Path Planning","volume":"91","author":"Niewola","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Intell. Robot. Syst."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stentz, A. (1994). Optimal and Efficient Path Planning for Partially-Known Environments. Proc. Int. Conf. Robot. Autom., 3310\u20133317.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1994.351061"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/1\/111\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:46:32Z","timestamp":1760179592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/1\/111"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,26]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s21010111"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21010111","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,26]]}}}