{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T14:49:40Z","timestamp":1773931780607,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]],"date-time":"2021-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008397","name":"VELUX FONDEN","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["22357"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["22357"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008397","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have been proven to be useful for stroke rehabilitation, but there are a number of factors that impede the use of this technology in rehabilitation clinics and in home-use, the major factors including the usability and costs of the BCI system. The aims of this study were to develop a cheap 3D-printed wrist exoskeleton that can be controlled by a cheap open source BCI (OpenViBE), and to determine if training with such a setup could induce neural plasticity. Eleven healthy volunteers imagined wrist extensions, which were detected from single-trial electroencephalography (EEG), and in response to this, the wrist exoskeleton replicated the intended movement. Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited using transcranial magnetic stimulation were measured before, immediately after, and 30 min after BCI training with the exoskeleton. The BCI system had a true positive rate of 86 \u00b1 12% with 1.20 \u00b1 0.57 false detections per minute. Compared to the measurement before the BCI training, the MEPs increased by 35 \u00b1 60% immediately after and 67 \u00b1 60% 30 min after the BCI training. There was no association between the BCI performance and the induction of plasticity. In conclusion, it is possible to detect imaginary movements using an open-source BCI setup and control a cheap 3D-printed exoskeleton that when combined with the BCI can induce neural plasticity. These findings may promote the availability of BCI technology for rehabilitation clinics and home-use. However, the usability must be improved, and further tests are needed with stroke patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020572","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,20]],"date-time":"2021-01-20T03:34:25Z","timestamp":1611113665000},"page":"572","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Induction of Neural Plasticity Using a Low-Cost Open Source Brain-Computer Interface and a 3D-Printed Wrist Exoskeleton"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7729-4359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mads","family":"Jochumsen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0815-2597","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taha Al Muhammadee","family":"Janjua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5324-5488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Carlos","family":"Arceo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH UMR CNRS 8201, INSA Hauts de France, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique Hauts de France, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4174-3065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jimmy","family":"Lauber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH UMR CNRS 8201, INSA Hauts de France, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique Hauts de France, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2059-884X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilie Simoneau","family":"Buessinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH UMR CNRS 8201, INSA Hauts de France, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique Hauts de France, F-59313 Valenciennes, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rasmus Leck","family":"K\u00e6seler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(08)70223-0","article-title":"Brain-computer interfaces in neurological rehabilitation","volume":"7","author":"Daly","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025004","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/2\/025004","article-title":"Using brain-computer interfaces to induce neural plasticity and restore function","volume":"8","author":"Mattia","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. 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