{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T00:35:49Z","timestamp":1776818149123,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]],"date-time":"2021-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20H04264, 18H05467, 19H04930, \t19K14943"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H04264, 18H05467, 19H04930, \t19K14943"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, we fabricated a novel wearable vibration sensor for insects and measured their wing flapping. An analysis of insect wing deformation in relation to changes in the environment plays an important role in understanding the underlying mechanism enabling insects to dynamically interact with their surrounding environment. It is common to use a high-speed camera to measure the wing flapping; however, it is difficult to analyze the feedback mechanism caused by the environmental changes caused by the flapping because this method applies an indirect measurement. Therefore, we propose the fabrication of a novel film sensor that is capable of measuring the changes in the wingbeat frequency of an insect. This novel sensor is composed of flat silver particles admixed with a silicone polymer, which changes the value of the resistor when a bending deformation occurs. As a result of attaching this sensor to the wings of a moth and a dragonfly and measuring the flapping of the wings, we were able to measure the frequency of the flapping with high accuracy. In addition, as a result of simultaneously measuring the relationship between the behavior of a moth during its search for an odor source and its wing flapping, it became clear that the frequency of the flapping changed depending on the frequency of the odor reception. From this result, a wearable film sensor for an insect that can measure the displacement of the body during a particular behavior was fabricated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020593","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,20]],"date-time":"2021-01-20T03:34:25Z","timestamp":1611113665000},"page":"593","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Wearable Vibration Sensor for Measuring the Wing Flapping of Insects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0842-4222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ryota","family":"Yanagisawa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Systems Science, Osaka University, 1-2 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5689-1338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shunsuke","family":"Shigaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of System Innovation, Osaka University, 1-2 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8199-581X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kotaro","family":"Yasui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aramaki aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan"},{"name":"Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1217-3892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dai","family":"Owaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Robotics, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8068-3777","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yasuhiro","family":"Sugimoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2850-0149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akio","family":"Ishiguro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Electrical Communication, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1160-1234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masahiro","family":"Shimizu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of System Innovation, Osaka University, 1-2 Machikaneyama-cho, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1088","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1145803","article-title":"Self-organization, embodiment, and biologically inspired robotics","volume":"318","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1322-0","article-title":"Untethered flight of an insect-sized flapping-wing microscale aerial vehicle","volume":"570","author":"Jafferis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2017.2730361","article-title":"Time-varying moth-inspired algorithm for chemical plume tracing in turbulent environment","volume":"3","author":"Shigaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribak, G., Barkan, S., and Soroker, V. (2017). The aerodynamics of flight in an insect flight-mill. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0186441"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1093\/aesa\/say041","article-title":"Assessing insect flight behavior in the laboratory: A primer on flight mill methodology and what can be learned","volume":"112","author":"Naranjo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1111\/een.12521","article-title":"The tethered flight technique as a tool for studying lifehistory strategies associated with migration in insects","volume":"43","author":"Minter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Chauncy, G. (2008). Mems & High Speed Vision Development and Application to Reverse-Engineer Drosophila Flight Control. [Ph.D. Dissertation, ETH Zurich]."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasir, M., Dickinson, M., and Liepmann, D. (2006, January 4\u20138). Measurement of insect flight forces using a mems based physical sensor. Proceedings of the Hilton Head 2006: A Solid State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Workshop, Hilton Head Island, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.31438\/trf.hh2006.77"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasir, M., Dickinson, M., and Liepmann, D. (2005, January 17\u201322). Multidirectional force and torque sensor for insect flight research. Proceedings of the International Electronic Packaging Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1115\/IPACK2005-73221"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Wood, R.J., and Fearing, R.S. (November, January 29). Flight force measurements for a micromechanical flying insect. Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Maui, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200277","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.200277","article-title":"Morphological diversification has led to inter-specific variation in elastic wing deformation during flight in scarab beetles","volume":"7","author":"Meresman","year":"2020","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"3018","article-title":"3d reconstruction and analysis of wing deformation in free-flying dragonflies","volume":"215","author":"Koehler","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130808","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2013.0808","article-title":"Wing and body motion and aerodynamic and leg forces during take-off in droneflies","volume":"10","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2014","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.016931","article-title":"Wing kinematics measurement and aerodynamics of hovering droneflies","volume":"211","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4165","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.45.004165","article-title":"Highspeed photogrammetry system for measuring the kinematics of insect wings","volume":"45","author":"Wallace","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabb2890","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.abb2890","article-title":"Automatic tracking of free-flying insects using a cable-driven robot","volume":"5","author":"Pannequin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Robot."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.2514\/1.J055360","article-title":"Experimental characterization of a butterfly in climbing flight","volume":"56","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIAA J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1007\/s10905-014-9454-4","article-title":"Flying insect classification with inexpensive sensors","volume":"27","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Insect Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6053","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2016.2574762","article-title":"Large aperture optoelectronic devices to record and timestamp insects\u2019 wingbeats","volume":"16","author":"Potamitis","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40317-018-0151-5","article-title":"Passive khz lidar for the quantification of insect activity and dispersal","volume":"6","author":"Jansson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Biotelemetry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.011828","article-title":"Laser system for identification, tracking, and control of flying insects","volume":"24","author":"Mullen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1038\/nmat4904","article-title":"Printable elastic conductors by in situ formation of silver nanoparticles from silver flakes","volume":"16","author":"Matsuhisa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1002\/app.39461","article-title":"Recent advances in flexible sensors for wearable and implantable devices","volume":"130","author":"Pang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"A supersensitive, multidimensional flexible strain gauge sensor based on ag\/pdms for human activities monitoring","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8366","DOI":"10.1021\/nn402728g","article-title":"Flexible sensors based on nanoparticles","volume":"7","author":"Haick","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s40820-019-0302-0","article-title":"Graphene nanostructure-based tactile sensors for electronic skin applications","volume":"11","author":"Miao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nano-Micro Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2020, December 30). Kinovea. Available online: https:\/\/www.kinovea.org\/."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20190132","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2019.0132","article-title":"In vivo structural dynamic analysis of the dragonfly wing: The effect of stigma as its modulator","volume":"377","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1515\/bchm2.1961.324.1.71","article-title":"\u00dcber den sexuallockstoff des seidenspinners, i. der biologische test und die isolierung des reinen sexuallockstoffes bombykol","volume":"324","author":"Buten","year":"1961","journal-title":"Hoppe-Seyler Z. F\u00dcR Physiol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2977","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.203.19.2977","article-title":"Sniffing by a silkworm moth: Wing fanning enhances air penetration through and pheromone interception by antennae","volume":"203","author":"Loudon","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1","article-title":"Experimental and numerical investigation on dragonfly wing and body motion during voluntary take-off","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1303\/aez.14.130","article-title":"Bombyx mori mationg dance: An essential in locationg the female","volume":"14","author":"Obara","year":"1979","journal-title":"Appl. Entomol. Zool."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yamada, M., Shigaki, S., Ohashi, H., Shimizu, M., Hosoda, K., and Kurabayashi, D. (2020, January 23\u201326). Measurement and Analysis of Odor Source Search Behavior of Insect Using Virtual Reality System. Proceedings of the SICE Annual Conference, Chiang Mai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1299\/jsmermd.2020.1A1-O02"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"515","article-title":"Self-generated Zigzag Turning of Bombyx mori Males during Pheromone-mediated Upwind Walking","volume":"9","author":"Kanzaki","year":"1992","journal-title":"Zool. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1109\/TFUZZ.2019.2915187","article-title":"Modeling of the Adaptive Chemical Plume Tracing Algorithm of an Insect Using Fuzzy Inference","volume":"28","author":"Shigaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Fuzzy Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s003590050177","article-title":"Coordination of wing motion and walking suggests common control of zigzag motor program in a male silkworm moth","volume":"182","author":"Kanzaki","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. A"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016005","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/12\/1\/016005","article-title":"A novel method for full locomotion compensation of an untethered walking insect","volume":"12","author":"Shigaki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioinspiration Biomimetics"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/2\/593\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:11:42Z","timestamp":1760159502000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/2\/593"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s21020593"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21020593","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,15]]}}}