{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T01:44:58Z","timestamp":1760233498266,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]],"date-time":"2021-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610928000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011039","name":"Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FA8650-17-C-9105 and FA8650-19-C-9105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FA8650-17-C-9105 and FA8650-19-C-9105"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011039","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper reports a multi-valve module with high chemical inertness and embedded flow heating for microscale gas chromatography (\u00b5GC) systems. The multi-valve module incorporates a monolithically microfabricated die stack, polyimide valve membranes, and solenoid actuators. The design incorporates three valves within a single module of volume 30.2 cm3, which is suitable for the small form factor of \u00b5GC systems. The die stack uses fused silica wafers and polyimide valve membranes that enhance chemical inertness. The monolithic die stack requires only three lithographic masks to pattern fluidic microchannels, valve seats, and thin-film metal heaters and thermistors. The performance of fabricated multi-valve modules is compared to a commercial valve in tests using multiple volatile organic compounds, including alkanes, alcohols, ketones, aromatic hydrocarbons, and phosphonates. The valves show almost no distortion of chromatographic peaks. The experimentally measured ratio of flow conductance is 3.46 \u00d7 103, with 4.15 sccm\/kPa in the open state and 0.0012 sccm\/kPa in the closed state. The response time is &lt;120 ms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s21020632","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,20]],"date-time":"2021-01-20T03:34:25Z","timestamp":1611113665000},"page":"632","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A Microvalve Module with High Chemical Inertness and Embedded Flow Heating for Microscale Gas Chromatography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6145-6771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hsueh-Tsung","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Wireless Integrated MicroSensing and Systems (WIMS<sup>2<\/sup>), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4589-4485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yutao","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Wireless Integrated MicroSensing and Systems (WIMS<sup>2<\/sup>), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2281-3937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yogesh","family":"Gianchandani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Wireless Integrated MicroSensing and Systems (WIMS<sup>2<\/sup>), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"},{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1109\/T-ED.1979.19791","article-title":"A gas chromatographic air analyzer fabricated on a silicon wafer","volume":"26","author":"Terry","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron. Devices"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/18\/1\/015023","article-title":"A piezoelectric microvalve for cryogenic applications","volume":"18","author":"Park","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2009.2021097","article-title":"A microvalve with integrated sensors and customization normal state for low-temperature environment","volume":"18","author":"Park","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2004.832184","article-title":"An electrostatic, on\/off microvalve designed for gas fuel delivery for the MIT microengine","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1002\/seup.200390019","article-title":"Microvalve for fuel cells and miniature gas chromatographic system","volume":"13","author":"Hesketh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Update"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-005-6073-z","article-title":"Self-actuated, thermo-responsive hydrogel valves for lab on a chip","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/16\/8\/001","article-title":"A versatile microreactor platform featuring a chemical-resistant microvalve","volume":"16","author":"Subramani","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2010.2093566","article-title":"A multidrug delivery system using a piezoelectrically actuated silicon valve manifold with embedded sensors","volume":"20","author":"Evans","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cazes, J. (2009). Chemical warfare agents: GC analysis. Encyclopedia of Chromatography, CRC Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429105432"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1263(199811\/12)18:6<393::AID-JAT528>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Review of health consequences from high-, intermediate- and low-level exposure to organophosphorus nerve agents","volume":"18","author":"Brown","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11192","DOI":"10.1021\/jp972724b","article-title":"Adsorption and decomposition of dimethyl methylphosphonate on metal oxides","volume":"101","author":"Mitchell","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2006.874495","article-title":"Recent advancements in the gas-phase MicroChemLab","volume":"6","author":"Lewis","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.06.021","article-title":"Real-time monitoring of sub-ppb concentrations of aromatic volatiles with a MEMS-enabled miniaturized gas-chromatograph","volume":"141","author":"Zampolli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7198","DOI":"10.1021\/ac201788q","article-title":"Microfabricated gas chromatograph for the selective determination of trichloroethylene vapor at sub-parts-per-billion concentrations in complex mixtures","volume":"83","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2014.12.136","article-title":"Zebra GC: A mini gas chromatography system for trace-level determination of hazardous air pollutants","volume":"212","author":"Garg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10266","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.6b03000","article-title":"Fully automated portable comprehensive 2-dimensional gas chromatography device","volume":"88","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1021\/ac061881g","article-title":"Microfluidic deans switch for comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography","volume":"79","author":"Seeley","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1021\/ac402961t","article-title":"Microfabricated gas chromatograph for rapid, trace-level determinations of gas-phase explosive marker compounds","volume":"86","author":"Collin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordenker, R.J.M., and Wise, K.D. (2012, January 23\u201327). A programmable palm-size gas analyzer for use in micro autonomous systems. Proceedings of the SPIE Defense, Security, and Sensing, Baltimore, MD, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.917858"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2014.2306652","article-title":"iGC1: An integrated fluidic system for gas preconcentrator, column, and detector microfabricated by a three-mask process","volume":"23","author":"Qin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"065011","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/24\/6\/065011","article-title":"iGC2: An architecture for micro gas chromatographs utilizing integrated bi-directional pumps and multi-stage preconcentrators","volume":"24","author":"Qin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, Y., and Gianchandani, Y.B. (2015, January 21\u201325). An all electronic, fully microfabricated micro gas chromatograph. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (Transducers), Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2015.7181001"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15049","DOI":"10.1038\/micronano.2015.49","article-title":"A fully electronic microfabricated gas chromatograph with complementary capacitive detectors for indoor pollutants","volume":"2","author":"Qin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microsyst. Nanoeng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azzouz, I., Poulichet, P., Pirro, M., Tan, W., Marty, F., Capochichi-Gnambodoe, M., Nefzaoui, E., Boumechhour, A., Cesar, W., and Angelesc, D. (2017, January 18\u201322). Evaluation of Tenax thin films as adsorbent material in a micro-preconcentrator and its operation as a valve-less multiple injection system in micro-gas chromatography. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators (Transducers), Kaohsiung, Taiwan.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2017.7994348"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R13","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/16\/5\/R01","article-title":"A review of microvalves","volume":"16","author":"Oh","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(98)00160-5","article-title":"A low pressure micromachined flow modulator","volume":"71","author":"Robertson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(93)80116-X","article-title":"A silicon microvalve with combined electromagnetic\/electrostatic actuation","volume":"37\u201338","author":"Bosch","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2007.907782","article-title":"A bidirectional electrostatic microvalve with microsecond switching performance","volume":"16","author":"Bae","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Kim, H., and Najafi, K. (2008, January 12\u201316). Electrostatic hydraulic three-way gas microvalve for high-pressure applications. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Miniaturized Systems for Chemistry and Life Sciences (\u00b5TAS), San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(02)00070-5","article-title":"A high-stroke, high-pressure electrostatic actuator for valve applications","volume":"100","author":"Wijngaart","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51593","DOI":"10.1039\/C4RA10341F","article-title":"Control of pressure-driven components in integrated micro fluidic devices using an on-chip electrostatic microvalve","volume":"4","author":"Tice","year":"2014","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/0250-6874(89)87114-8","article-title":"Normally closed valve microvalve and micropump fabricated on a silicon wafer","volume":"20","author":"Esashi","year":"1989","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Shoji, S., Schoot, B.V.D., Rooij, N.D., and Esashi, M. (1991, January 24\u201327). Smallest dead volume microvalves for integrated chemical analyzing systems. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators (Transducers), San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2002.807471","article-title":"A piezoelectric microvalve for compact high-frequency, high-differential pressure hydraulic micropumping systems","volume":"12","author":"Roberts","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105008","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/25\/10\/105008","article-title":"Miniature proportional control valve with top mounted piezo bimorph actuator with millisecond response time","volume":"25","author":"Groen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, H.-T., Qin, Y., and Gianchandani, Y.B. (2018, January 28\u201331). A hybrid three-way valve for gas chromatography systems. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Sensors Conference, New Delhi, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2018.8589847"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1109\/JMEMS.2002.808459","article-title":"A High-Flow Thermopneumatic Microvalve with Improved Efficiency and Integrated State Sensing","volume":"12","author":"Rich","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Microelectromech. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.3390\/mi3020379","article-title":"A hybrid thermopneumatic and electrostatic microvalve with integrated position sensing","volume":"3","author":"Potkay","year":"2012","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Shinozawa, Y., Abe, T., and Kondo, T. (1997, January 26\u201330). A proportional microvalve using a bi-stable magnetic actuator. Proceedings of the IEEE\/ASME International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Nagoya, Japan."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-4247(99)00298-8","article-title":"A micromachined silicon valve driven by a miniature bi-stable electro-magnet actuator","volume":"80","author":"Burger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S96","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/13\/4\/316","article-title":"Magnetically driven micro ball valves fabricated by multilayer adhesive film bonding","volume":"13","author":"Fu","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1039\/b800600h","article-title":"Teflon films for chemically-inert microfluidic valves and pumps","volume":"8","author":"Grover","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Liao, W., Zhao, X., Lu, H.-T., Qin, Y., and Gianchandani, Y.B. (2017, January 28\u201330). Progressive cellular architecture in gas chromatograph for broad vapor sensing. Proceedings of the Chemical and Biological Defense Science & Technology (CBD S&T) Conference, Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Bruss, H. (2007). Hydraulic resistance and compliance. Theoretical Microfluidics, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1021\/ac00255a033","article-title":"Equations for calculation of chromatographic figures of merit for ideal and skewed peaks","volume":"55","author":"Foley","year":"1983","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/2\/632\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:12:21Z","timestamp":1760159541000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/21\/2\/632"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s21020632"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s21020632","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]]}}}